Theories Of Religion

Question 1

Summarise the key features of substantive definitions.

Answer 1

• Focus on content or substance of religious belief.

- They’re exclusive (draw clear line between religious and non-religious beliefs).

Question 2

Summarise the key features of functional definitions.

Answer 2

• Define religion in terms of the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society.
• Durkheim defines religion in terms of the contribution they make to social integration.
• Yinger: Religion is an individual issue not for whole society.
• They’re inclusive (allowing wide range of beliefs and practices that perform functions e.g integration to be included).
• No bias against non-western religions e.g Buddhism.

Question 3

Summarise the key features of constructionists definitions.

Answer 3

• Interpretivist approach: focuses on how members of society define religion.
• Not possible to produce a single universal definition of religion.
• Social constructionists: how definitions of religion are constructed, challenged + fought over.
• Aldridge: Scientology

Question 4

What is society’s most basic need?

Answer 4

Social order and solidarity so that its members can cooperate.

Question 5

According to functionalists, how is order possible in society?

Answer 5

The existence of value consensus. Without this, individuals would pursue their own selfish desires.

Question 6

Explain what is meant by ‘the sacred’.

Answer 6

Things set apart and forbidden, that inspire feelings of awe, fear and wonder, and are surrounded by taboos and prohibitions.

Question 7

Explain what is meant by ‘the profane’.

Answer 7

Things that have no special significance. Things that are ordinary and mundane.

Question 8

What is the significance of the totem in clan worship?

Answer 8

Totem: clans emblem e.g an animal or plant that symbolises the clans origins and identity.
Totemic rituals: serve to reinforce groups solidarity and sense of belonging.

Question 9

Explain what is meant by the collective conscience.

Answer 9

The shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life and cooperation between individuals possible.

Question 10

Explain how rituals reinforce the collective conscience.

Answer 10

Binds individuals together reminding them they’re part of a single moral community to which they owe their loyalty.

Question 11

Briefly outline two cognitive functions of religion.

Answer 11

• In order to think at all, we need categories such as time, space, cause, substance, number etc.
• In order to share our thoughts, we need to use the same categories as others.

Question 12

Give three criticisms of Durkheim’s views on religion.

Answer 12

• Worsley: No sharp division between the sacred and profane & different clans share the same totems. Even if he’s right about totemism, doesn’t prove he’s discovered essence of all other religions.
• May apply better to small-scale societies w/ single religion. Harder to apply to large-scale societies, where 2 or more religious communities may be in conflict. May explain social integration between communities, not conflicts between them.
• Mestrovic (postmodernist): can’t be applied to contemporary society as increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience so there’s no longer a single shared value system for religion to reinforce.

Question 13

According to Malinowski, how does religion promote social solidarity?

Answer 13

By performing psychological functions for individuals, helping them cope with emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity.

Question 14

Briefly outline the two types of situations in which Malinowski suggests religion promotes social solidarity.

Answer 14

Where the outcome is important but is uncontrollable and thus uncertain:

• Trobriand Islanders (contrasts ocean & lagoon fishing)
• Lagoon fishing: safe, uses predictable & successful method (poisoning), no ritual.
• Ocean fishing: dangerous & uncertain, ‘canoe magic’ - sense of control, eases tension, confidence to undertake hazardous tasks & reinforces group solidarity. Sees ritual serving as ‘god of the gaps’.

At times of life crises:
- Events such as: birth, puberty, marriage and death mark major and disruptive changes in social groups.
Religion: helps minimise disruption
E.g: funeral rituals reinforce feeling of solidarity among survivors, while notion of immortality gives comfort to the bereaved by denying fact of death.
Malinowski: death is main reason for existence of religious belief.

Question 15

According to Parsons, what are the two essential functions of religion?

Answer 15

• Creates and legitimates society’s central values.

- It’s the primary source of meaning.

Question 16

Briefly outline how religion acts as a source of meaning.

Answer 16

It answers ‘ultimate’ questions about the human condition e.g why the good suffer & why some die young. Religion provides answers to such questions, for example by explaining suffering will be rewarded in heaven.

Question 17

Explain what is meant by civil religion.

Answer 17

A belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself.

Question 18

Briefly explain how civil religion binds Americans together.

Answer 18

• Involves loyalty to the nation-state & a belief in God, both equated with being a true American.
• Expressed in various rituals, symbols & beliefs e.g pledge of allegiance.
• Sacralises American way of life & binds together Americans from many different ethnic & religious backgrounds.

Question 19

Briefly outline three criticisms of the functionalist view of religion.

Answer 19

• Emphasises social nature of religion and the positive functions it performs, but neglects negative aspects e.g religion as a source of oppression of the poor or women.
• Ignores religion as a source of division and conflict, especially in complex modern societies where there’s religious pluralism (e.g Northern Ireland) it’s hard to see how it unites people & promotes integration.
• Idea of civil religion overcomes this problem to some extent, arguing that societies may still have an overarching belief system shared by all, but is this really religion? - especially if its not based on the belief in the supernatural?

Question 20

How do Marxist see society?

Answer 20

Divided into two classes, one which exploits the labour of the other.

Question 21

According to Marx, how will exploitation be overcome?

Answer 21

Marx predicted the w/c would become conscious of their exploitation & unite to overthrow captialism.

Question 22

What will happen to religion in a classless society?

Answer 22

There’ll be no need for religion in classless society and it’ll disappear.

Question 23

Define ideology.

Answer 23

A belief system that distorts people’s perception of reality in ways that serve the interests of the r/c.

Question 24

Briefly outline how religion acts as an ideological weapon. Give an example of this.

Answer 24

• Used by the r/c to legitimate suffering of the poor as something inevitable and god-given.
• Religion misleads poor into believing that their suffering is virtuous and they’ll be favoured in the afterlife.
• E.g Christianity: its easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than it is for a rich man to enter heaven.
• Creates false consciousness: prevents poor from changing their decision.

Question 25

What did Lenin mean by the claim that religion is a ‘spiritual gin’?

Answer 25

• An intoxicant doled out to the masses by the r/c to confuse them and keep them in their place.
• Lenin: r/c use religion cynically to manipulate the masses & keep them from attempting to overthrow r/c by creating a ‘mystical fog’ that obscures reality.

Question 26

Explain how religion legitimates the power and privilege of the dominant class.

Answer 26

Makes their position appear to be divinely ordained.

For example:

• The Divine Right of Kings (16th Cent.): belief that the king is God’s representative on Earth and is owed total obedience.
• Disobedience: illegal & sinful challenge to God’s authority.

Question 27

Define alienation.

Answer 27

Becoming separated from or losing control over something that one has produced or created.

Question 28

Briefly explain how religion is a product of alienation, according to Marx.

Answer 28

.

Question 29

Briefly outline three criticisms of the Marxist view of religion.

Answer 29

• Marx: ignores positive functions of religion e.g psychological adjustment to misfortune. Neo-Marxists: see certain forms of religion as assisting not hindering development of class consciousness.
• Some Marxists (e.g Althusser) reject concept of alienation as unscientific and based on romantic idea that humans have a ‘true self’ This would make the concept an inadequate basis for a theory of religion.
• Religion doesn’t necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the pop. E.g Abercrombie, Hill and Turner argue: in pre-capitalist society, while Christianity was a major element of r/c ideology, it had limited impact on peasantry.

Question 30

Define patriarchy.

Answer 30

Rule by father. Male dominance.

Question 31

How do feminists regard religion?

Answer 31

A patriarchal institution that reflects and perpetuates this inequality.

Question 32

Briefly outline how each of the following aspects of religion demonstrates patriarchy:

• Religious organisations
• Places of worship

Answer 32

Religious organisations:

• Mainly male-dominated.
• However, women often participate more than men.
• Example: Orthodox Judaism & Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests.
• Armstrong: exclusion from priesthood is evidence of women’s marginalisation.

Places of worship:

• Often segregate the sexes & marginalise women.
• Example: seating them behind screens while men occupy central & more sacred spaces.
• Women’s participation may be restricted
• Example: not being able to read from sacred texts.
• Taboos that regard menstruating, pregnancy & childbirth as polluting may also prevent participation.
• Holm: evidence of devaluation of women in religion.

Question 33

Briefly outline how each of the following aspects of religion demonstrates patriarchy:

• Sacred texts
• Religious laws and customs

Answer 33

Sacred texts:

• Largely feature doings of male Gods, prophets etc.
• Usually written & interpreted by men.
• Stories often reflect anti-female stereotypes
• Example: Eve who, in Judaeo-Christian story of Genesis, causes humanity’s fall from grace and expulsion from Garden of Eden.

Religious laws and customs:

• May give women fewer rights than men.
• Example: access to divorce, decision making, dress codes etc.
• Religious influences on cultural norms may also lead to unequal treatment.
• Example: genital mutilation.
• Woodhead: exclusion of women from Catholic priesthood is evidence of the Church’s deep unease about the emancipation of women generally.

Question 34

According to Armstrong, in what ways has the position of women within religion changed?

Answer 34

• Early religions often placed women at the centre.
• Example: Earth mother goddesses, fertility cults and female priesthoods were found throughout Middle East until 6,000 yrs ago.
• However: 4,000 yrs ago, rise of monotheistic religions saw the establishment of a single, all-powerful male God e.g Hebrews’ Jehovah.

Question 35

Briefly outline one example of how some women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect.

Answer 35

Gilliat-Ray (2010):

• Some Muslim women choose to wear hijab to gain parental approval to enter further education & employment.
• For them: hijab is a symbol of liberation that allows them to enter the public sphere without being condemned as immodest.

Question 36

What are piety movements and which women are most likely to join them?

Answer 36

• Conservative movements that support traditional teachings about women’s role, modest dress, prayer & Bible study.
• Inc. Pentecostal & evangelical groups, & some forms of non-Christian groups.
• Rinaldo: M/c urban women most likely to join.

Question 37

What are liberal Protestant movements?

Answer 37

• Often committed to gender equality and women playing leading roles (E.g the Quakers & Unitarians).
• Example: 1/3 of Unitarian ministers are female. The Church of England has had female priests since 1992, & female bishops since 2015. Over 1/5 of its priests are female.

Question 38

How does Weber define religion?

Answer 38

Belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explain scientifically.