Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
Give 4 practical issues that would influence the choice of research methods:
A
- time and money
- funding body
- personal skills and social status
- research opportunity
2
Q
Practical issues
Time and Money
A
Diff methods require different amounts of time and money..
Questionnaires and social surveys = more efficient and less costly.
3
Q
Practical issues
Funding Body
A
Whoever is funding the research may be in a position to dictate how they want the research to be conducted.
4
Q
Practical issues
Personal Skills and Social Status
A
It depends on the personality e.g. a sociable person would conduct interviews whilst a shy person may prefer a questionnaire.
5
Q
Practical issues
Research Opportunity
A
It depends whether the research is planned in advance = if it last minute, sociologist would choose what is at their disposable easily.
6
Q
Give 4 Ethical Issues that would influence the choice of research methods:
A
- informed consent
- confidentiality and privacy
- protection
- vulnerable groups
7
Q
Ethical issues
Informed consent
A
They should be given the opportunity to agree or refuse to participate in research.
8
Q
Ethical issues
Confidentiality and Privacy
A
Researchers should respect the privacy of the participants and the identity and personal info should be kept private.
9
Q
Ethical issues
Protection
A
Researchers need to be aware of the possible of their work on those they study and where possible should try to anticipate and prevent any harmful consequences.
10
Q
Ethical issues
Vulnerable Groups
A
Special care should be taken where research participants are particularly vulnerable because of their age, physical or mental health etc
11
Q
What do Positivists like?
A
Quantitative data, see sociology as a science - like a macro level of analysis.
12
Q
What do Interpretivists like?
A
Prefer qualitative data, seek to understand the meaning behind people’s meanings - micro level of analysis.
13
Q
Social surveys have 2 forms…
A
Questions can be put to people via a questionnaire or interviews.
14
Q
Stages to conducting a social survey:
A
1 - choose topic
2 - formulating an aim or hypothesis
3 - operationalising concepts
4 - the pilot study
5 - sampling
15
Q
What will sociologists be guided by when deciding what topic they wish to study? (3)
A
- any current social issues
- their gender
- personal interests
16
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
A possible explanation that can be tested by collecting evidence - there is a “cause” and “effect” element.
17
Q
An aim identities…
A
What the sociologist intends to study and hopes to achieve by conducting the research.
18
Q
What is the advantage of a hypothesis?
A
It gives direction to the research and focus to the questions to be asked.
19
Q
What does Operationalising Concepts mean?
A
Sociological ideas must be defined in a way that can be measured - it needs to be clear as diff sociologists define things differently.
20
Q
What is the Pilot Study?
A
A ‘draft’ version of the main research which is done on a smaller sample.
21
Q
What is the aim of a pilot study?
A
To iron out any problems / clarify the wording of questions so the real research runs smoothly.
22
Q
What needs to be considered when Sampling?
A
They need to decide who should be included in their research - their target/research population.
23
Q
What is the Target Population?
A
The group of people/population that is relevant to the research.
24
Q
What is a sample?
A
A smaller section drawn from the larger target population - sociologists cannot ask the entire relevant population.
25
If the sample is representative, what can be made?
Generalisations are broad law-like statements about a particular target group - stereotype.
26
Where do sociologists select their sample from?
A sampling frame.
27
What is a sampling frame?
A list of members of the target population - a database from which a researcher can select their sample.
28
Sampling Techniques
What are the two types?
Representative Sampling
Non Representative Sampling
29
What is Random Sampling - is it representative?
Representative
| The sample is selected by chance and everyone has an equal chance of being picked.
30
What is Systematic Sampling - is it representative?
Representative - where every nth person in the sampling frame is selected.
31
What is Stratified Random Sampling - is it representative?
Representative - this is where the researcher first breaks down the population in the sampling frame by age, gender and ethnicity.
Sample is then created in the same proportions.
32
What is Quota Sampling - is it representative?
Where the population is stratified and then each is given a quota of say, 20 females and 20 males, which they have to fill with respondents who fit these characteristics.
33
Why may it not be possible to create a representative sample? (2(
- it may be impossible to find or create a sampling frame for that particular research population.
- potential respondents may refuse to participate.
34
What is Snowball Sampling?
| Is it representative?
NON REPRENTATIVE
it involves collecting a sample by contacting a key number of individuals who are asked to suggest others who would participate in the research.
35
Why is snowball sampling good?
You can contact a sample of people who may otherwise be difficult to find.
36
What is Opportunity Sampling?
| Is it representative?
NON REPRESENTATIVE
| It involves choosing from those individuals who are easiest to access e.g. random question interviews in town.
37
How do lab experiments work?
The scientist manipulates the variables in which they are interested in in order to discover what effect they have.
38
What is the control group and why is it important?
When the quantity of nutrients would be constant.
So you can distinguish between how something nornally is to how you have affected it.
39
Why are lab experiments considered reliable?
- detached method = it is an objective way to conduct research.
- it can easily be replicated by following the exact same steps.
40
Why are lab experiments rarely used though?
- as a lab isn’t a normal environment = hawthorn effect can occur.
- small scale nature means it can’t be representative.
- society is complex and it would be impossible to identify and control all the variables that might impact on behaviour.
41
What are Field Experiments?
They take place in the subject’s natural environment e.g. school and to avoid the Hawthorne effect, people aren’t told they are taking part.
42
What is the Comparative Method?
It is carried out only in the mind of the sociologist. The sociologists identifies two groups of people that are alike apart from in one variable and compare them to see if this one difference has any effect.
- however, can’t control any variables.
43
Lab experiments in Education
| Give an example of one which took place:
Harvey and Slatin showed 96 teachers photos of children from diff social classes and were asked to rate them on performance etc ... found that they rated WC children less favourably.
44
What are the concerns about using lab experiments to conduct research in education: (3)
- ethical concerns - working with young pupils.
- artificiality - means they tell us little about real world.
- narrow focus - only examine one specific aspect of behaviour such as teacher expectations.
45
What are the concerns of using field experiments to conduct research in education? (2)
- ethical problems as the people aren’t aware they are being monitored.
- cannot be replicated due to differences in teachers and pupils = not representative = not reliable.
46
What are questionnaires?
A list of pre-determined questions which can be administered by hand, post or online.
47
2 types of questions that can be asked:
Closed questions = pre-determines range of responses (tick boxes)
Open questions = in their own words.
48
Give 3 advantages of Questionnares:
- can be sent to a large sample of people so it can be truly representative.
- detachment means that it is an objective method = researcher’s personal involvement is kept to a minimum.
- quick and cheap means of gathering large amount of data from a large sample e.g. Dewson posted 4,000 questionnaires to students at 14 HE institutions.
49
Give 3 disadvantages of Questionnares:
- low response rate is e.g. shere hite sent 100,000 out in the US and only 4.5 % were returned.
- too detached = can not clarify any misunderstandings = lacks validity.
- inflexible = meaning researcher cannot expire any new areas of interest that come up in the research.
50
Using Questionnares in Education
| Some negatives: (2)
- Schools May not keep lists hat reflect the researcher’s interests.
- validity may be low as children have narrower life experiences so may not know answer.
51
Using questionnaires in Education:
| Why might this be good?
Children have a shorter attention span than adults so a short questionnaire can be more effective than interviews.
52
What are Structured Interviews?
They are like questionnaires but the predetermined questions are read out and filled in by the researcher.
53
Give 3 positives of structured interviews:
- results are easily quantified as questions are usually closed meaning they are suitable for hypothesis testing.
- reliable as they are standardised and controlled and can therefore be repeated.
- usually a high response rate as people don’t decline a face to face request.
54
Give 3 negatives of structured interviews:
- inflexibility as there are standardised questions and predetermined responses.
- training interviewers = time consuming and more costly.
- feminists argue that the researcher is dominant which represents the patriarchal society.
55
What are Unstructured Interviews?
They do not follow a standardised format and therefore the researcher had freedom to vary the interview.
56
Give 3 positives of unstructured interviews:
- can develop a rapport - developing trust and understanding = useful when studying sensitive issues.
- can check understanding as follow up questions can be asked.
- flexibility as researcher can formulate new ideas, themes, questions etc.
57
Give 3 negatives of unstructured interviews:
- because questions are open they cannot be quantified so they aren’t useful for the hypothesis testing that positivists prefer.
- interviewers need to be trained so they can develop the rapport = time consuming and costly.
- not detached = researcher may affect the answers = lacks validity.
58
Interviews involve...
Social interaction.
59
How can social interaction threaten the validity of interviews? (3)
- interviewers may influence the persons answer by their facial expression/ tone of voice etc.
- social desirability effect = interviewees may provide answers to present themselves in a positive light.
- cultural differences = misunderstandings as a result of diff meanings being attached to words.
60
Using structured interviews in Education
| What are the negatives? (3)
- power and status differences = pupils may alter their responses to seek adult approval.
- ethical issues when interviewing children.
- more difficult to create questions for use with young people because their linguistic and intellectual skills are not fully developed.
61
Using structured interviews in Education
| What are the positives? (3)
- young people have better verbal skills so this would be better than using questionnaires.
- easy to replicate so they can be done in diff schools in diff areas and compare.
- they take less time than unstructured interviews so are less disruptive to schools activities.
62
Using unstructured interviews in education
| What are the positives? (3)
- the interviewer can clarify misunderstanding which is good esp as young people may need more guidance.
- they can overcome barriers of power and status by developing the rapport = children more likely to answer truthfully.
- interviewers can maintain a relaxed atmosphere to put kids at ease = more likely to talk.
63
Using unstructured interviews in education
| What are the negatives? (3)
- requires more training than structured e.g. need to be trained not to interrupt children and be patient.
- children have a shorter attention span = long UI’s are too demanding.
- teachers may seek to protect their professional self image and so are likely to represent themselves in the most positive light = social desirability.
64
What is:
Non Participant Observational Studies
When the researcher observed but does not participate = stands outside and is detached.
65
What is:
Participant Observational Studies
Where the researcher joins the group and participated in the study while researching it.
66
Participant Observational Studies is a form of....
Ethnography
Ethnographic research is when the researcher joins the group in their natural habitat and becomes part of their ‘world’
67
What is:
Overt Observation
When the true identity of the researcher is known by the group who are being observed.
68
What is:
Covert Observation
When the researcher is ‘undercover’ and the people aren’t aware that they are being researched.
69
Both NPO and PO can be...
Conducted in a
OVERT or COVERT way.
70
5 characteristics of Education when studying Education:
Pupils
Teachers
Parents
Classrooms
Schools
71
What is Overt Non Participant Observation:
Researcher doesn’t participate and observes people with their consent - sociologists either sit with an observation schedule/ take notes.
72
What was conducted by Elton Mayo in the 1930’s?
Mayo wanted to find out what kinds of conditions would encourage employees to work harder - however she realised that the workers were working harder due to all the attention the workers were getting.
HAWTHORNE EFFECT
73
Strengths of Overt Non-Participant Observation: (3)
- maintain a level of detachment as you aren’t participating = enhances validity.
- have consent = more ethical.
- preferred by positivists as it structured and behaviour can be measured - have an Observational schedule.
74
Weaknesses of Overt Non Participant Observation: (3)
- Hawthorne effect = affects validity.
- it can be biased as researcher is making their own judgements on why someone acts a certain way.
- detachment means you may miss vital behaviours and you lack insight to the understanding as to why they act the way they did.
75
Give 3 advantages of participant observation:
- you can get an insight known as VERSTEHEN (empathy)
- can be the only viable method for studying certain groups e.g. groups who wouldn’t participate like a teenage gang.
- has more validity as you see people in action rather than just hearing what they would do in a situation.
76
Give 3 disadvantages of participant observation:
- very time consuming e.g. Whyte’s study took 4 years to complete.
- risk ‘going native’ which affects reliability and validity.
- PO studies are usually very small so they aren’t very representative and doesn’t provide a sound basis for making generalisations.
77
How might Participant Observation in Education be a good method? (2)
- more likely to overcome problem of status differences allowing the researcher to gain acceptance by pupils = more valid data.
- May be easier to gain permission to observe lessons than to interview pupils and teachers.
-
78
How might Participant Observation in Education be unsuccessful? (3)
- teachers may be suspicious of an observer and later their normal behaviour - the Hawthorne effect.
- can only be carried out on a very small scale = unrepresentative especially as diff schools have diff characters.
- ethical issues surrounding the study of children who are more vulnerable.
79
What is Structured Observation?
When sociologists sit back and observe (don’t participate) and monitor using their Observational schedule.
80
3 positives of Structured Observation in Education:
- it is easy for an observer to just sit back at the back of a classroom.
- short duration of lessons mean it won’t be tiring.
- easy to replicate classroom observations = the range of classroom behaviours is relatively limited.
81
2 negatives of Structured Observation in Education:
- interpretivists criticise for its lack of validity = ignores the meanings that pupils and teachers attach to it.
- the presence of the observer may be off putting which will affect pupils and teachers behaviour = reducing validity.
-
82
What are Official Statistics?
Quantitive data gathered by the government or other official bodies.
83
Two ways of collecting official stats:
- registration e.g. having to register births.
| - official surgery’s e.g. the census.
84
Give 3 advantages of Official Statistics:
- free source of huge amounts of data, can be representative.
- standardised way or collecting them so can be seen as reliable - few mistakes when recording the data.
- collected at regular intervals, can see patterns over time.
85
Give 3 disadvantages of Official Statistics:
- definitions of things change over time, can’t compare data.
- interpretivists don’t like it - no empathy or insight given.
- soft Statistics aren’t reliable e.g. as not all crimes are reported.
86
Using official statistics in education:
| Give an advantage and disadvantage:
Adv: saves sociologists time and money as government already collects statistics from every school.
Can be highly representative and cover all pupils.
Disadvantage: diff schools have diff characters and some schools may manipulate their records to look better.
87
A document is ...
Any written texts.
88
Public documents are ..
Produced by organisations such as government departments, schools, agencies etc
89
Personal documents are ...
Items such as letters, diaries - first person accounts of social events.
90
Historial documents are...
Things used to study the past - usually the only source of information.
91
advantages of documents: (2)
- can see a social actor’s reality and gain an insight to their life - interpretivists like this.
- cheap source of data and time efficient.
- few ethical concerns with public documents.
92
Scott’s method of assessing documentary sources: (4)
- is it authentic? Who made it, any errors?
- credibility - is the author sincere, is the author sincere?
- representativeness - is the evidence in the document typical? Can’t generalise if not.
- meaning - diff sociologists May interpret same documents differently.
93
What is content analysis?
A method for dealing systematically with the contents of documents.
94
Advantages of content analysis: (2)
- cheap
| - easy to find sources or material.
95
Using documents to study education:
| Give an advantage & disadvantage:
Adv - systematic formats of documents means easy comparison.
Give the official picture of what is happening in a school.
Disavd - not all behaviour is recorded, documents are open to diff interpretations.
96
What is Longitudinal Studies?
They follow/research a sample of people over an extended period of time - data is collected at regular intervals.
97
Give an example of a Longitudinal Studies:
JWB Douglas - followed over 5,000 children through their schooling.
98
Advantages of Longitudinal Studies: (2)
- can identify causes and reasons by comparing.
| - liked by interpretivists- rich amount of qualitative data.
99
Disadvantages of Longitudinal Studies: (2)
- people often drop out , this wastes time and affects validity.
- so much data may be hard to analyse.
- so time consuming
100
What’s a case study / focus group?
A research that examines a single case or example.
101
What is Triangulation?
When sociologists use a combo of methods in their research - methodological pluralism.
102
Why is Triangulation good?
Methods can compliment eachother and one method’s strength can make up for the weaknesses of another.
You can gain a macro level of analysis (positivists like this)
