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Test One Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is a microbe

A

a microbe is a living organism that requires a microscope to be seen

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2
Q

what are some exceptions to microbes not needing a microscope to be seen

A

some protists, some algae, some bacteria

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3
Q

what is the avg range size for microbial cells

A

millimeters to .2 micrometers

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4
Q

what are some contradictions to the microbe definition

A

supersize microbial cells
microbial communities
viruses

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5
Q

what domains of life will you find microbes

A

bacteria, archaea and eukarya

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6
Q

what are the three domains of life

A

bacteria, archaea and eukarya

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7
Q

prokaryotes lack a

A

nucleus

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8
Q

what is a genome

A

total genetic information contained in an organism’s chromosomal DNA

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9
Q

who developed the first method of DNA sequencing

A

Fred Sanger

in the 70’s

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10
Q

what was the first genome sequenced according to the book

A

bacteriophage (virus)

1977

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11
Q

what was really the first genome sequenced

A

RNA virus in 1976

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12
Q

when was the first genome of cellular microbe sequenced

A

1995

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13
Q

what was the first genome sequenced of a cellular microbe

A

Haemophilus influenzae

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14
Q

what microbial disease was big in the 14th century

A

bubonic plague

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15
Q

what microbe causes the bubonic plague

A

Yersinia pestis

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16
Q

what transmitted the bubonic plague

A

rat flies and prairie dogs

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17
Q

what microbial disease was big in the 19th century

A

tuberculosis

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18
Q

what microbe causes tuberculosis

A

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

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19
Q

what microbial disease was big in the 20th-21st century

A

AIDS

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20
Q

what causes AIDS

A

HIV

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21
Q

more soldiers have died of what than of wounds in battle

A

microbial infections

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22
Q

who first recognized the significance of disease in warfare

A

british nurse

florence nightingale

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23
Q

florence nightingale founded what

A

science of medical statistics

“polar area chart”

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24
Q

what does medical statistics show

A

shows the deaths of soldiers due to carious causes

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25
Q

how were microbes discovered

A

by chance

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26
Q

who built the first compound microscope

A

robert hooke

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27
Q

what is a compound microscope

A

two lenses lined up, increase magnification beyond magnifying glass

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28
Q

what did robert hooke use the compound microscope for

A

mold filaments

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29
Q

who published micrographia

A

robert hooke

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30
Q

what was in micrographia

A

the first manuscript that illustrated objects under the microscope

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31
Q

who coined the term cell

A

robert hooke

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32
Q

what was the magnification of a compound microscope

A

30x

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33
Q

how did robert hooke define cell

A

distinct units of living material

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34
Q

who worked as a cloth draper

A

antonie van leeuwenhoek

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35
Q

who built single lens magnifiers

A

antonie van leeuwenhoek

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36
Q

what was unique about the single lens magnifiers

A

there was a sample holder and focus adjustment

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37
Q

who was first to observe single celled microbes

A

antonie van leeuwenhoek

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38
Q

how did antonie van leeuwenhoek observe singel celled microbes

A

examined matter between teeth before and after drinking hot beverages
first dentist

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39
Q

what did antonie van leeuwenhoek call single celled microbes

A

small living animals

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40
Q

who is credited for looking at noted cases of microbes associated with pathology fungal disease in silk worms

A

agostino bassi de lodi

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41
Q

what helps differentiate human tissue from microbial cells

A

differential chemical stains

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42
Q

what was a finding that agostino bassi de lodi discover

A

hard to distinguish between microbes and single celled components of the human body
couldnt distinguish healthy from disease tissue

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43
Q

what is spontaneous generation

A

the theory that living creatures could arise without parents

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44
Q

was francesco redi for or against spontaneous generation

A

against

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45
Q

what was Francesco redi’s experiment

A

sealed meat and no maggots were observed

no flys means no maggots

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46
Q

what was odd about francesco redis experiment

A

meat still produced microbes, this went towards spontaneous generation

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47
Q

what was lazzaro spallanzani experiment

A

sealed flask of meat broth sterilized by boiling failed to grow microbes

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48
Q

what was lazzaro spallanzani view of spontaneous generation

A

argued against

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49
Q

from lazzaro spallanzani experiment, what did he observe

A

microbes appeared paired

“cell fission”

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50
Q

louis pasteur discovered what

A

the microbial basis of fermentation

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51
Q

pasteur thought fermentation was caused by

A

yeast

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52
Q

what was pasteurs idea of fermentation

A

yeast produces alcohol, when yeast culture is contaminated with bacteria, the bacteria outgrow the yeast and produce acid instead of alcohol

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53
Q

why did some people believe spallanzani experiment produced no microbial growth

A

not because of boiling but because of lack of oxygen

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54
Q

how did pasteurs experiment test theory of spontaneous growth

A

“swan neck flask”

even after boiling, no microbial growth even when air is presence

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55
Q

what was the scientist that had experiments to disprove the theory of spontaneous growth

A

louis pasteur

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56
Q

who attempted same pasteur experiment but received different results

A

john tyndall

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57
Q

in john tyndall experiments, what did he discover

A

endospores

resistant to heat and boiling

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58
Q

what is germ theory of disease

A

diseases caused by microorganisms

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59
Q

who was the founder of scientific method of microbiology

A

robert koch

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60
Q

who studied anthrax (cattle epidemics)

A

robert koch

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61
Q

how did robert koch study anthrax

A

took infected carcus samples and inject into rabbit and rabbit dies

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62
Q

what is chain of infection

A

transmission of disease

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63
Q

who demonstrated the important principle of epidemiology: the chain of infection, or transmission of disease

A

robert koch

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64
Q

what is a pure culture

A

one type of organism growing in culture

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65
Q

who used pure cultures to prove a particular bacterium cause a specific disease

A

robert koch

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66
Q

who created the solid medium, agar for experiments

A

angelina and walther hesse

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67
Q

what replaced gelatin

A

agar

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68
Q

who created or used the double dish container, covered glass version of kochs glass dishes, petri dish

A

julius petri

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69
Q

what is the criteria for establishing a causative link between an infectious agent and a disease

A
  1. microbe is always present in diseased host and absent in healthy
  2. microbe is isolated from diseased host and grown in pure culture
  3. introduce pure microbe into healthy host, individual becomes sick
  4. same microbe re-isolated from now sick individual
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70
Q

in the 18th century what children where inoculated with the small pox virus and received mild form of disease then became immune

A

children in asia/africa

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71
Q

who introduced the practice of small pox inoculation to europe

A

lady mary montagu

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72
Q

with montagu inoculating children with small pox, was this seen as attenuation

A

no

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73
Q

who was the first to recognize attenuation

A

louis pasteur

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74
Q

who infected patients with matter from cowpox lesions

A

edward jenner

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75
Q

what was the infecting patients with matter from cowpox lesions a practice of?

A

vaccination

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76
Q

who was the first to develop the first vaccines based on attenuated strains

A

louis pasteur

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77
Q

what does immunity mean

A

resistance to specific disease

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78
Q

what does immunization mean

A

the stimulation of an immune response by deliberate inoculation with an attenuated pathogen

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79
Q

who ordered doctors to wash their hands with chlorine, an antiseptic agent

A

Ignaz Semmelweis

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80
Q

what is an antiseptic

A

chemical that kills microbes

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81
Q

did doctors believe that hand washing with chlorine helped lower mortality rates

A

no

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82
Q

to created carbolic acid to treat wounds and clean surgical instruments bc 1/2 of his amputee patients dies

A

joseph lister

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83
Q

when was aseptic surgery developed

A

20th century

environments completely microbe free

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84
Q

who discovered that penicillium mold generated a substance that kills bacteria

A

Alexander fleming

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85
Q

how was penicillium discovered

A

by accident, with staph

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86
Q

who purified penicillin

A

howard florey and ernst chain

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87
Q

what was the first commercial antibiotic to save human lives

A

penicillin

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88
Q

who studied tobacco mosaic disease

A

dmitri ivanovsky

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89
Q

how did dmitri ivanovsky study tobacco masiac disease

A

agent of transmission could pass through a porcelain filter that blocked all known microbes

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90
Q

who worked on the agent of tobacco mosaic disease is not a bacterium because passes through filter that retains bacteria

A

martinus beijerinck

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91
Q

who was able to purify the filterable agent and crystalize it
TMV: tobacco mosaic virus

A

Wendell Stanley

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92
Q

what does cultivated mean

A

brought into pure culture

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93
Q

what is the percentage of microbial species that have been cultured in a laboratory

A

less than .1%

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94
Q

the remainder of microbes make up the majority of

A

earths atmosphere

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95
Q

what part of earth supports the complex multicellular life

A

outer skin of earth

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96
Q

who was the first to study bacteria in its natural habitats

A

sergei winogradsky

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97
Q

who discovered the beggiatoa oxidizes H2S

A

sergei winogradsky

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98
Q

who discovered chemolithotrophs (or lithotrophs)

A

sergei winogradsky

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99
Q

what are lithotrophs or chemolithotrophs

A

microbes that derive energy from inorganic electron donors

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100
Q

what is an example of lithotrophs or chemolithotrophs

A

beggioatoa

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101
Q

who developed enrichment cultures

A

sergei winogradsky

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102
Q

what are enrichment cultures

A

cultures derived from the use of selective media that support the growth of certain types of microbial metabolism while excluding others
not a pure culture

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103
Q

what is the wetland model ecosystem also called

A

winogradsky column

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104
Q

who showed the importance of bacteria in geochemical cycling

A

winogradsky

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105
Q

what is geochemical cycling

A

global interconversions of inorganic and organic forms of nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, phosphorous, carbon, etc

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106
Q

what are endosymbionts

A

organisms living symbiotically inside a larger organism

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107
Q

which microbe is a supersize microbial cell that can be seen by the naked eye

A

thiomargarita namiiebiensis

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108
Q

what are the two challenges with microbial classification

A

light microscopy allows little more than visualizing the outward
shape of cells
microbes do not fit in definition of species

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109
Q

how much DNA similarity do 2 distinct species share

A

no more than 95%

110
Q

what is the endosymbiosis theory

A

polyphyletic ancestry of living species

not a common ancestor

111
Q

advances in biochemistry and microscopy revealed…

A

the fundamental structure and function of cell membranes and proteins

112
Q

the revelation of DNA and RNA structures led to the discovery of what

A

genetic programs of model organisms

113
Q

what two instruments led to study of cell strucutre

A

the electron microscope and the ultracentrifuge

114
Q

who developed the electron microscope

A

ernst ruska

115
Q

what can you see using the electron microscope

A

cytoplasm containing macromolecules
phospholipid membrane
intracellular membranes, ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts
DNA containing nucleoid

116
Q

who developed the ultracentrifuge

A

theodor svedberg

117
Q

what is the ultracentrifuge used for

A

separates cell components such as proteins

118
Q

what is transformation

A

internalization of free DNA from the environment into bacterial cells

119
Q

what is an example of transformation

A

dead virulent strain injected into mouse with non virulent strain, DNA mutate into virulent DNA and kills mouse

120
Q

what is resolution

A

the smallest distance by which two objects can be separated and still be distinguished

121
Q

what is detection

A

the ability to determine the presence of an object

122
Q

what is magnification

A

an increase in the apparent size of an image to resolve smaller separations between objects

123
Q

microbial size of eukaryotes

A

10 to 100 micrometers

124
Q

microbial size of prokaryotes

A

o.4 to 10 micrometers

125
Q

what is light microscopy

A

resolves images by absorption of light

126
Q

what is electron microscopy

A

uses of beam of electrons to resolve details

SEM and TEM

127
Q

Xray crystallography

A

used to build a computational model of the molecular structure

128
Q

what shape is bacilli

A

rods

129
Q

what shape is cocci

A

spheres

130
Q

what are the spiral forms of microbes

A

spirochetes and spirilla

131
Q

what shape is vibrio

A

comma shape

132
Q

what are some fundamental traits of prokaryotes

A

thick complex outer envelope
compact genome
tightly coordinated cell functions

133
Q

what would you find in the prokaryotic cytoplasm

A

water, ions, small organic molecules, have some macro molecules

134
Q

what will you find in the cell membrane of microbes

A

phospholipids, transporter proteins, and other molecules

135
Q

what composes the cell wall of microbes

A

composed of polysaccharides linked covalently by peptides (peptidoglycan)

136
Q

what is a flagellum

A

external helical filament whose rotary motor propels the cell

137
Q

what is a nucleoid

A

non membrane bound area of the cytoplasm that contains the chromosomes in the form of looped coils

138
Q

what is the most abundant component in a cell

A

water

139
Q

what is the 2nd most abundant component in a cell

A

protein then RNA

140
Q

what is subcellular fractionation

A

isolate cell parts, separating cell membrane, isolate proteins, isolate DNA and RNA

141
Q

what is structural analysis

A

reveal the form of cell components

142
Q

what is genetic analysis

A

examining function of cell components

143
Q

what are ways to study cell parts

A

subcellular fractionation
structural analysis
genetic analysis

144
Q

what are some techniques for subcellular fractionation

A

mild detergent analysis
sonication
enzymes
mechanical disruption

145
Q

what is mild detergent analysis

A

lyse cells

dissolve membranes without denaturing proteins

146
Q

what is sonication

A

lyse cells with ultrasonic vibrations

help separate proteins

147
Q

what do enzymes do

A

lysozyme: breaks down cell wall

148
Q

what is mechanical disruption

A

high pressure, bead- beating

use beads to break pellet, friction shears cell membranes, used to shear DNA

149
Q

crystallography helps relate what to what

A

structure to function

150
Q

what is done during genetic analysis

A

mutant strains are selected for loss of a given function, or a strain can be intentionally mutated so as to lose or alter a gene

151
Q

definition of cell membrane

A

the structure that defines the existence of a cell

152
Q

what is in a cell membrane

A

phospholipid bilayer containing lipid soluble proteins

153
Q

what are the 2 main functions of a cell membrane

A

mediates transport from outside to cytoplasm

carriers proteins with specific functions

154
Q

what are more function of the cell membrane

A

structural support
detection of environmental signals
secretion of virulence factors and communication signals
ion transport and energy storage

155
Q

membranes have equal parts of

A

phospholipids and proteins

156
Q

what are the reinforcing agents of cell membranes in eukaryotes

A

sterols

157
Q

what are the reinforcing agents of cell membranes in prokaryotes

A

hopanoids or hopanes

158
Q

what molecules can DIFFUSE through the cell membrane

A

small uncharged molecules, water

159
Q

is diffusion energy dependent or independent

A

independent

160
Q

what is osmosis

A

diffusion of water from regions of high water concentration (low solute) to regions of low water concentration (high solute)

161
Q

what is required for ions to pass membrane

A

transporters

162
Q

what are some transport proteins

A

channels, pores, passive transport, active transport

163
Q

what is passive transport

A

molecules move along their concentration gradient, no energy needed

164
Q

what is active transport

A

molecules move against their concentration gradient, requires energy from ATP hydrolysis
may use co transporter

165
Q

what is another name for the bacteria cell wall

A

sacculus

166
Q

most bacterial cell walls are made of

A

peptidoglycan or murein

167
Q

what does a molecule of peptidoglycan consist of

A

glycan linked to peptide of 4 to 6 aa

168
Q

what makes up glycan

A

n-acetylglucosamine

n-acetylmuramic acid

169
Q

peptides form what kind of bridges to connect to parallel glycan strands

A

cross bridges

170
Q

where are capsules found

A

in gram positive, some gram neg and rare in archaea

171
Q

where are s-layers found

A

some gram positive and some archaea

172
Q

what are capsules made of

A

polysaccharides

173
Q

what is the function of a capsule

A

virulence factors, protect from host immune system

174
Q

why was bacteria first used in determining DNA

A

faster reproductive times, easy to cultivate

175
Q

the promise of DNA was first fulfilled in what organism

A

bacteria and bacteriaphages

176
Q

what kind of enzyme led to recombinant DNA

A

restriction endonucleases

177
Q

finding gene regulation discovered in bacteria provided models for…

A

animals and plants

178
Q

what is the s layer made of

A

made of protein or glycoprotein

179
Q

function of the s layer

A

deter predators, contribute to cell shape, protection from osmotic stress, resistant to lytic enzymes, protect from change in pH

180
Q

what reinforces the cell wall in gram positive

A

teichoic acid

181
Q

LPS in gram negative is linked to what

A

phosphoglucosamine

182
Q

purpose of gram staining

A

differentiate gram positive and negative

183
Q

what can you find in the outer membrane and not inner

A

sugar binding proteins and porins

184
Q

what does periplasm contain

A

transporters for sugars, amino acids, and other nutrients

185
Q

are archaea pathogens

A

no

186
Q

where can you find archaea

A

open ocean, soil, and surface of plant roots

187
Q

what is an antibiotic

A

compounds produced by one microbe that can kill or inhibit the growth of other microbes

188
Q

what is broad spectrum antibiotic

A

effective against many species

189
Q

what is a narrow spectrum antibiotic

A

effective against few or a single species

190
Q

example of narrow spectrum antibiotic

A

penicillin towards gram positive

191
Q

sources of antibiotic

A

natural products and artificial means

192
Q

what is a bactericidal

A

antibiotics kill target organisms
only affect growing cells
such as cell wall synthesis

193
Q

what is bacteriostatic

A

antibiotics prevent growth of organisms

cant kill organism hoping immune system removes organism

194
Q

what do antibiotics attack

A

cell wall and membrane
DNA and RNA synthesis
protein synthesis
metabolism

195
Q

what is the function of cell envelope

A

contain and protect cells genome

196
Q

bacterial DNA is organized in loops called

A

Domains

197
Q

where would you find domains in prokaryotes

A

extended throughout the cytoplasm

198
Q

how many domains do nucleoids form

A

about 50

199
Q

what is the central point of the nucleoid

A

the origin of replication

200
Q

where is the origin of replication attached at

A

at cell envelope at the equator

201
Q

what are supercoils

A

extra twists in DNA to fit all of the DNA in the cell

202
Q

what enzyme helps with supercoils

A

gyrase

203
Q

how does a supercoil twist

A

opposes the natural twist of the duplex

204
Q

what is the name of the supercoil that opposes the natural twist

A

negative supercoil

205
Q

what kind of supercoil is in archaeal hyperthermophiles

A

positive supercoils

keeps coil together in high temps

206
Q

what kind of supercoil in archaeal mesophiles

A

negative supercoil

207
Q

what is transcription

A

DNA transcribed to RNA by RNA polymerase

208
Q

what is translation

A

mRNA binds to ribosome to produce protein sequence

209
Q

what enzyme is required for ribosome to convert RNA to protein

A

aminoacyltransferase enzyme

210
Q

when does translation and transcription occur during bacteria

A

coupled together during DNA replication
this helps bacteria divide in 10 min
everything occurs in cytoplasm

211
Q

in eukaryotes when does transcription and translation occur

A

during interphase when cell is not dividing

things occur in nucleus and then cytoplasm

212
Q

how does protein synthesis work with prokaryotic membrane

A

protein synthesis is embedded in lipid membrane, protein synthesis occurs and is secreted out of membrane

213
Q

what is transertion

A

coupling of transcription and translation to membrane insertion

214
Q

how does cell division work in bacteria

A

bacterial DNA replication is coordinated with cell wall expansion and then separation of two daughter cells

215
Q

do bacterial cells go through meiosis or mitosis

A

no

216
Q

how do bacterial chromosomes replicate

A

from its origin, bidirectionaly

217
Q

what helps DNA polymerase in DNA replication of bacteria

A

replisome

218
Q

what needs to happen before the bacterial cell can divide

A

DNA replication must be completed

219
Q

what triggers the growth of the dividing partition

A

replication of the termination site

220
Q

what is another name for the dividing partion in a bacteria cell

A

septum

221
Q

how does the septum grow during cell division

A

grows inward, constricting and sealing off the two daughter cells

222
Q

what needs to happen in cell division for rod shape bacteria

A

the envelope needs to elongate prior to septation followed by the formation of a new polar envelope

223
Q

what is polar aging

A

bacterial cell poles differ in their origin and “age”

224
Q

what are some ways bacteria can generate two kinds of daughter cells

A

one is stationary and other mobile
flagellum to stalk
start with flagellum then stalk and flagellum then separation and one mobile other stationary

225
Q

is the polar aging in bacterial cells symmetrical or asymmetrical

A

asymmetrical

226
Q

do the poles of daughter cells of cell divison differ chemically

A

yes

227
Q

how do cells go through septation in spherical cells

A

parallel planes to make chains

or right angles to make tetrads

228
Q

what are phototrophs

A

organisms that use energy from light to carry out various cellular metabolic processes

229
Q

what protein complexes do phototrophs use to harvest light

A

contain chlorophylls

230
Q

what are thylakoids

A

extensively folded intracellular membranes

invaginations of plasma membrane

231
Q

what do thylakoids contain

A

photosynthetic proteins and electron proteins

232
Q

function of thylakoids

A

conduct light reaction
photon absorption and energy storage
energy used to fix CO2

233
Q

what is a carboxysomes

A

polyhedral bodies packed with enzyme RuBisCO for CO2 fixation

234
Q

what are some specialized structures of phototrophs

A

carboxysomes, gas vesicles
phycobilisomes
storage granules

235
Q

what are gas vesicles in phototrophs

A

trap H2 and CO2 from cell metabolism to increase buoyancy

236
Q

what are phycobilisomes

A

light harvesting antennae

237
Q

what do storage contain in phototrophs

A

glycogen, PHB, PHA, and elemental sulfur

238
Q

what are magnetotactic bacteria

A

magneticaly directed motility bacteria

bacteria that orient along the magnetic filed lines of the earth

239
Q

what are magnetosomes

A

membrane embedded crystals of magnetite or greigite
create dipole moment
orient swimming of megnetotactic bacteria

240
Q

what is adherence

A

ability to attach to a substrate

241
Q

what is motility

A

ability to move and relocate

242
Q

what are some structures for cell attachment

A

pilus, fimbria, sex pili, nanotubes, stalks

243
Q

what are pili and fimbria

A

straight filaments of protein monomers called pilin

244
Q

function of sex pili

A

used in conjugation to transfer DNA

245
Q

what are nanotubes

A

extensions of cell envelope that connect the cytoplasm or periplasm between different cells

246
Q

what are stalks

A

membrane embedded extensions of cytoplasm

tips secrete adhesion factors known as holdfasts

247
Q

how do prokaryotes swim

A

using flagella

248
Q

what are petritrichous cells

A

several flagella randomly distributed around the cell

249
Q

what are lophotrichous cells

A

several flagella attached at one or both ends of cell

250
Q

what are monotrichous cells

A

have a single flagellum

251
Q

what are amphitrichous cells

A

single or tuft of flagella at both ends

252
Q

what are flagellin

A

spiral filament of protein monomers in flagellum

253
Q

what rotates the flagella

A

the motor driven by proton motive force

254
Q

functions of flagella

A

cause population to disperse, decreasing competition

adherence of cells to a substrate to form biofilm

255
Q

what is chemotaxis

A

movement of bacterium in response to chemical gradient

either toward or away

256
Q

attactants cause flagelum to move in what direction

A

counter clock wise

257
Q

in flagellum CCW movements, what are runs and tumbles like

A

long runs with shorter tumbles

258
Q

repellents cause flagellum to move in what direction

A

clock wise

259
Q

what is the overall movement of flagellum

A

random walk

260
Q

in flagellum, CW movements have what type of runs and tumbles

A

more tumbles to shorten runs

261
Q

runs help move cell

A

forward

262
Q

tumbles help cell do what

A

stop and change direction

263
Q

are there on or multiple species in a biofilm

A

one or multiple

264
Q

where can you find biofilms

A

organic or inorganic surfaces

265
Q

when do biofilms form

A

when nutrients are plentiful

266
Q

what can cause biofilms to form

A

environmental signals

pH, iron concentration, temp, O2 availability, amino acids present

267
Q

how do biofilms attach

A

flagella, pilip, lipopolysaccharides or other cell surface appendages

268
Q

what is bad about biofilms

A

create colonies that are antibiotic resistant and immune system resilient
resistant to phagocytosis
can increase antibiotic resistant gene

269
Q

how do cells in biofilms create such a barrier

A

form thick extracellular matrix made of polysaccharide polymer and EPS

270
Q

what is quorom sensing

A

how bacterial cells communicate with each other by sending and receiving chemical signals
helps with binding to certain substrate and to each other

Microbiology (16 decks)

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