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animal physioligy > test 2 > Flashcards

test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 methods of heat transfer?

A

Conduction
convection
thermal regulation
evaporation

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2
Q

Conduction

A

loss or gain

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3
Q

convection

A

loss or gain

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4
Q

thermal regulation

A

loss or gain

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5
Q

evaporation

A

loss

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6
Q

conduction rate of transfer determined by

A
  1. Temperature gradient
  2. Distance between core and environment
  3. Conductivity of the material between core and environment
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7
Q

convection rate of transfer determined by

A
  1. Temperature gradient
  2. Air/fluid speed
  3. Shape/diameter of body parts
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8
Q

involves contact between solid objects to move heat

A

conduction

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9
Q

wave length _____ as temperature ____

A

Decreases, increases

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10
Q

A potential mechanism for cooling without water loss

A

thermal radiation

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11
Q

thermal radiation Rate of heat transfer determined by?

A

Surface temperature

Emissivity of the surface

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12
Q

Radiation may be _____, ______, or _____

A

absorbed, reflected or pass through

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13
Q

Heat moves from ____ temperature to ____ temperature

A

high temperature to low temperature

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14
Q

Objects receiving the heat _____ in temperature, objects losing heat _____ in temperature

A

increase, decrease

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15
Q

Thermal equilibrium occurs when?

A

both objects are at the same temperature and there is no net movement of heat

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16
Q

Animals may gain and lose heat _____

A

simultaneously

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17
Q

Transfer of heat between neighboring molecules due to a temperature gradient

A

conduction

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18
Q

Transfer of heat through a substance due to visible movement of the substance

A

convection

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19
Q

Much faster than conduction

A

convection

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20
Q

Highly effective cooling mechanism

A

evaporation

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21
Q

Conversion of body water from the skin and respiratory tract to gas requires substantial amounts of heat energy

A

evaporation

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22
Q

warmed by the metabolic production of heat

A

Endothermy

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23
Q

maintenance of a relatively constant body temperature

A

Thermoregulation

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24
Q

Environmental temperature

A

Determines metabolic rate and therefore how much food is required

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25
Q

Body temperature

4

A
  • Regulates tissue function
  • Balance of heat input versus heat output
  • Heat input: metabolic heat production, from the environment, conduction, convection, radiation
  • Heat output: conduction, convection, radiation, evaporation
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26
Q

Poikilotherms are also called ____

A

ectotherms

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27
Q

fish, reptiles, amphibians are examples of ?

A

ectotherms

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28
Q

Body temperature is dependent on environmental temperature

A

ectotherms

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29
Q

mammals, birds, some insects

A

homeotherms

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30
Q

Can also alter behavior to influence heat dissipation

A

homeotherms

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31
Q

Thermoregulate by physiological means

A

homeotherms

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32
Q

Mammals maintain their body temperatures within a very narrow range called

A

“Set point”

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33
Q

Skin thermoreceptors: (3)

A
  • Skin in contact with environment
  • Skin temperature changes before core temperature
  • “warning system”- modify the set temperature to trigger a thermoregulatory response before core temperature changes
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34
Q

Core thermoreceptors: (3)

A
  • Hypothalamus (brain)
  • Receive inputs from skin thermoreceptors
  • Generate the response
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35
Q

How is body temperature monitored and regulated?

A

skin and core thermoreceptors

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36
Q

Thermoneutral zone:

A

the range of environmental temperatures where animals can maintain core body temperature without an increase in metabolic rate

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37
Q

DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY THEREFORE DOES NOT AFFECT THE METABOLIC RATE (energy req’t)

A

Insulation

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38
Q

Vasomotor responses

A
  • (physiological)
  • Vasoconstriction/vasodilation to alter blood flow to the skin
  • Insulation
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39
Q

Postural responses

A
  • (behavioral)
  • Controlling amount of surface area exposed to ambient temperatures
  • Insulation
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40
Q

Erection or compression of hair (pilomotor response) or feathers (ptilomotor response)

A
  • (physiological)
  • Greater erection = greater insulation = greater resistance to heat loss
  • Insulation
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41
Q

Resistance to heat loss through conduction, convection and radiation

A

Insulation

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42
Q

Body temperature maintained by ?

A

mediating the degree of insulation

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43
Q

Width of TNZ is determined by the extent to which the ?

A

animal can mediate their insulation

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44
Q

Shivering

A
  • (physiological)
  • Uncoordinated contraction/relaxation of muscles
  • ATP ultimately becomes heat
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45
Q

Non-shivering thermogenesis

A

-(physiological)
-Heat production without shivering
fat oxidation can occur quickly, but energy released directly as heat
-Primarily mammals and young birds
Cold-acclimated adults, hibernators, newborns
Brown adipose: high vascularity, large mitochondria, well innervated; uncoupling protein 1 expression

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46
Q

Below the thermoneutral zone

A

ATP requiring = INCREASED METABOLIC RATE

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47
Q

Responses to temperatures above the upper critical temperature

A
  • Energy requiring processes- ↑ metabolic rate

- Initiation of evaporative cooling

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48
Q

Energy requiring processes to increase evaporative loss =

A

INCREASE METABOLIC RATE

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49
Q

Sweating:

A
  • in some mammals; sweat secreted to the surface of the skin
  • (physiological)
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50
Q

Panting:

A
  • increased rate of breathing

- (physiological)

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51
Q

Gular fluttering:

A
  • in birds; vibrating the floor of the oral cavity to increase airflow over mucous membranes
  • (physiological)
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52
Q

Pyrogens (cytokines, prostaglandins) cause an _____ in the body’s “set-point”

A

increase

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53
Q

Pyrogens

A
  • Trigger to conserve heat and produce more heat to reach new set point
  • Shivering, vasoconstriction, piloerection, etc.
  • Increase in body temperature
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54
Q

Three types of muscle

A
  • cardiac
  • Skeletal
  • smooth
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55
Q

Skeletal muscle

A
  • Striated muscle associated with voluntary movement

- Contraction is regulated by the somatic nervous system

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56
Q

Cardiac muscle

A
  • Striated muscle in the heart

- Contraction regulated by the autonomic nervous system

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57
Q

Smooth muscle

A
  • Muscle in blood vessels, visceral tissues

- Contraction is regulated by the autonomic nervous system

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58
Q

3 layers of connective tissue membranes:

A
  • Epimysium: layer of cells encasing entire muscle
  • Perimysium: layer of cells encasing a bundle (fascicle) of muscle fibers (muscle cells)
  • Endomysium: layer of cells encasing individual muscle fibers
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59
Q

Multi-nucleated =

A

each cell has more than one nucleus

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60
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticulum- surround _____

A

individual myofibrils

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61
Q

Sarcolemma =

A
  • cell membrane of individual muscle fibers
  • Plasma membrane
  • Outer membrane of polysaccharide and collagen
  • Invaginations = T-tubules
  • Has acetylcholine receptors and ion channels
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62
Q

A strand of interacting proteins (actin + myosin) that runs parallel to the length of the muscle

A

Myofibrils

63
Q

Repeating unit that forms the myofibrils =

A

sarcomere

64
Q

sarcomere

A
  • Contractile unit
  • Each sarcomere shortens during muscle contraction
  • Net effect = entire muscle fiber shortens
65
Q

Individual sarcomeres separated by

A

Z-disks

66
Q

sarcomeres Composed of ?

A
  • myofilaments (proteins)
  • Thick (myosin)
  • Thin (2 actin chains, troponin, tropomyosin)
67
Q

Thick filament

A

Myosin molecules arranged to have “head” and “tail” regions

68
Q

Thin filament

A
  • Actin chain
  • Troponin
  • Tropomyosin
69
Q

Flexion

A

Decreases joint angle

70
Q

Extension

A

Increases joint angle

71
Q

Whole-muscle contraction

A

Distance between insertion (end of the muscle that attaches to the freely moving bone) and origin (end of muscle that attaches to the “fixed” bone in the joint) shortens

72
Q

The sarcomere shortens because there is a ?

A

greater degree of overlap between the thick and thin filaments

NONE of the individual filaments changes in length

73
Q

“Sliding filament theory”:

A

thick and thin filaments slide over each other, increasing the degree of overlap

74
Q

Muscle contraction needs:

A
  • ATP
  • nerve impulse (acetylcholine)
  • calcium
75
Q

_____ is needed to separate actin from myosin from the previous contraction cycle

A

ATP

76
Q

Myosin ATPase cleaves ______

the energy is not used until calcium is present

A

ATP to ADP + Pi

77
Q

_____ binds _____, allowing myosin to bind to actin

A

Calcium, troponin

78
Q

The Pi group is released and the stored energy is used to

A

flex the myosin head, pulling the thin filament over the thick filament, towards the M-line

  • Powerstroke
  • ADP is eventually released
  • Cycle repeats itself as ATP binds to the myosin head
79
Q

Troponin

A
  • Attached to actin filaments and tropomysin

- Has a binding site for calcium, which influences how it interacts with tropomyosin

80
Q

Tropomyosin

A
  • No Ca2+ = blocks myosin binding site on actin

- Ca2+ = moves off the myosin binding site on the actin

81
Q

Ca2+ enters the cytoplasm due to

A

nerve stimulation

82
Q

Excitation-Contraction coupling

A
  • Relationship between membrane depolarization and contraction
  • Link between nervous and musculoskeletal systems
83
Q

T-tubules of the sarcolemma

A
  • Membrane “dips” into the cytoplasm (sarcoplasma) perpendicular to the fibers
  • Has ion channels
  • Allows membrane depolarization to be “experienced” deep in the muscle fiber
84
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

A
  • Surround each myofibril
  • Sequester and release Ca2+ upon membrane (t-tubule) depolarization (Ach binding receptors on sarcolemma)
  • Terminal cisternae- part of the SR near the t-tubules and store calcium ions
85
Q

Membrane calcium channels

2 voltage-gated calcium channels

A
  • T-tubules: DHPRs (dihydropyridine receptor)

- Sarcoplasmic reticulum: RyR (ryanodine receptor)

86
Q

ATP needed for:

A
  • ATP binding to cross-bridge: myosin detaches from actin- prevent rigor mortis
  • ATP hydrolysis: energy needed for the “power stroke”
  • Drives the Ca2+ pump to return calcium to the sarcoplasmic reticulum
87
Q

Twitch fibers

A
  • generate action potentials

- Most common

88
Q

Classified based on myosin ATPase type (how fast myosin ATPase can cleave myosin; speed of contraction)

A
  • I: Slow oxidative
  • IIA: Fast oxidative glycolytic
  • IIB/IIX: Fast glycolytic
89
Q

What is a nervous system?

A
  • A network of neurons and support (glial) cells
  • Signals pass from sensory receptors/neurons, are integrated, new signals are generated and conducted through neurons to the effector cells
  • A regulatory system
90
Q

What does the nervous system help animals do?

A

-Regulate muscle contraction → regulate movement

Regulate secretions from glands → hormone, enzymes, saliva, etc.

Gather information about the external and internal environment → maintain homeostasis

Detect pain, pressure, chemical concentrations
Stimulate thirst, hunger and other survival mechanisms

91
Q

CNS =

A

interneurons

  • brain
  • spinal cord
92
Q

Continues caudally from the brainstem

A

spinal cord

93
Q

Encapsulated by the vertebrae

A

spinal cord

94
Q

spinal cord has 2 types of neural circuits

A
  1. Local
    - Sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons all in the same segment
    - Control the output of that segment
    - Primitive reflexes
  2. Ascending/Descending
    - Communication to/from the brain for higher integration
95
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

Any nervous tissue located outside of the brain and spinal cord

Sensing the environment

Activating tissue/organ responses

96
Q

Peripheral nervous system, 2 key divisions:
Somatic
Autonomic

A
  • Somatic

- Autonomic

97
Q

Central nervous system:

A

includes brain and spinal cord

98
Q

Peripheral nervous system:

A

neurons going to and from the CNS

99
Q

Afferent neurons:

A

conduct “signal” towards the CNS (sensory neurons)

100
Q

Efferent neurons:

A

conduct “signal” away from the CNS (motor neurons)

101
Q

Interneurons:

A

entirely within the CNS

102
Q

Cell that is able to generate and propagate an electrical signal

A

neuron

103
Q

4 key parts of the neuron:

A

Dendrites- Input

Cell body (soma)- Integration (processing)

Axon- Transmission

Pre-synaptic terminals (telodendrion)- Output

104
Q

Neurons generate signals that are ____ and ____

A

fast, addressed

105
Q

electrical signals are faster than _______ signals

A

hormonal

Potential to conduct 100 impulses per second

106
Q

Cell body (stoma)

A

Nucleus containing

Processes emanate outwards

Organelles: mitochondria, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth)

Active in protein synthesis (neurotransmitters)

107
Q

Dendrites

A
  • Short, branch repeatedly
  • Dendritic spines
  • Similar organelles to the stoma
108
Q

Axon

A

Generally 1 per neuron

May or may not be myelinated

Contain mitochondria and smooth endoplasmic reticulum

109
Q

Axon terminals

A

Branches off the end of the axon

Contain vessicles of neurotransmitters (made in stoma)

Axoplasmic transport

Site of neurotransmitter release

110
Q

Glial cells

A

Cells in the nervous system that support neural function

111
Q

Outnumber neurons ~10:1

A

Glial cells

112
Q

Glial cells Different types (3)

A

Schwann cells (PNS)/Oligodendricytes (CNS): form myelin sheath (wrap around axons)

Astrocytes (CNS): metabolic support cells, intermediate between neuron and capillary

Microglial cells (CNS): immune function

113
Q

Tract:

A

bundle of myelinated axons in the CNS

114
Q

Nuclei:

A

groups of nerve cell bodies in the CNS

115
Q

Grey matter:

A

cell bodies, synapses, unmyelinated axons

116
Q

White matter:

A
  • tracts of myelinated axons

- Ascending and decending

117
Q

outside of brain, inside of spinal cord

A

grey matter

118
Q

inside of brain, outside of spinal cord

A

white matter

119
Q

Nerve: a bundle of neuron axons in the peripheral nervous system
Cranial nerves
Spinal nerves

A

-a bundle of neuron axons in the peripheral nervous system

  • Cranial nerves
  • Spinal nerves
120
Q

Ganglion:

A

a grouping of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system

121
Q

Three key things contribute to the resting membrane potential:

A

Na+/K+ pump

Ion separation and ions will move toward their equilibrium (inside of the cell also has more proteins with a negative charge that cannot diffuse through the membrane, so even if K+ and Na+ move in and out to try to reach equilibrium, they

Differential membrane permeability (more K+ leakage channels and so K+ is more likely to reach equilibrium because it can move more freely through the membrane, so the resting membrane potential is closer to the K+ potential than the Na+ potential)

122
Q

Resting membrane potential =

A

-65 mV

123
Q

Na+ membrane equilibrium potential =

A

+58 mV

124
Q

K+ membrane equilibrium potential =

A

-80 mV

125
Q

Factors that maintain resting membrane potential:

A
  • ions must pass through membrane channels or be actively transported
  • Different membrane channels are permeable to different ions
  • Selective permeability
  • Membrane channels may open and close
  • Not all channels are necessarily open/closed at the same time
  • Different ions can move through the membrane at different times
126
Q

Maintaining ion concentration differences at rest

A
  • Maintained by the Na+/K+-ATPase pump
  • 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in
  • Neither K+ or Na+ is in electrochemical equilibrium
127
Q

Membrane is more permeable to ___ than ___

A

K+ than Na+

128
Q

_______% of ATP produced in the brain from glucose is used for Na+/K+-ATPase pump function

A

50 – 70%

129
Q

Something that _____ the membrane, makes the membrane potential greater than -65 mV

A

depolarizes

130
Q

Something that _____ the membrane makes the membrane potential less than -65 mV

A

hyperpolarizes

131
Q

What is an action potential?

A

Electrical signal generated by excitable cells due to voltage-dependent changes in membrane permeabilitie

132
Q

action potential is triggered by ?

A

Triggered by depolarization (to ~-55 mV)

133
Q

Action potentials are an _____ phenomenon

A

‘All or None’

134
Q

Changes in ______ create action potentials

A

membrane permeability

135
Q

Lidocaine =

A

local anaesthetic

136
Q

Lidocaine “blocks”______channels

A

voltage-gated Na+

137
Q

Downstream =

A

action potential possible

138
Q

Upstream =

A

no action potential possible

139
Q

Factors controlling action potential velocity (speed) (3)

A

axon diameter

temperature

mylionation

140
Q

Factors controlling action potential velocity (speed)

Axon diameter

A
  • ↑ action potential velocity with ↑ increased diameter
  • More ion channels per unit length with increasing diameter = less resistance to ion flow into the axon = easier to depolarize
141
Q

Factors controlling action potential velocity (speed)

Temperature

A
  • Ion channels are temperature dependent
  • Increasing temperature exponentially increases conduction velocity
  • Warm blooded animals (vs. reptiles) can maintain a high conduction velocity without having large diameter neurons
142
Q

Factors controlling action potential velocity (speed)

Myelination

A
  • ↑ action potential velocity
  • Action potential “jumps” from Node of Ranvier to Node of Ravier- Saltatory conduction

-Myelin = insulates the axon
No ions can move in/out portions of the axon where there is the myelin wrapped around

-Only need to depolarize the Node of Ranvier regions, which is a relatively small portion of the axon, therefore speed is much faster in myelinated axons than unmyelinated axon

143
Q

What is a synapse? (5)

A

Contact between a neuron and another neuron or a neuron and its effector cell

Pre-synaptic neuron (axon)

Post-synaptic neuron (dendrite or cell body) OR a cell (ie. muscle)

Cells separated by the synaptic cleft

Communication occurs via neurotransmitters

144
Q

What makes it a neurotransmitter?

A

Chemical compound present in the pre-synaptic terminal

Released upon stimulation (depolarization and calcium)

Interacts with the receptors on a post-synaptic cell

145
Q

Properties of chemical synapses

Fast =

A

ionotropic

146
Q

Properties of chemical synapses

Slow=

A

metabotropic

147
Q

Properties of chemical synapses

A

Unidirectional

Uses neurotransmitters

Two classifications

  • slow (metabotropic)
  • fast (ionotrpoic)

Can be excitory (cause depolarization) or inhibitory (cause hyperpolarization)

148
Q

Ionotropic (5)

A

receptor ligand-gated channel

Directly alter membrane permeability to ions (open/close ion channels)

Signal transduction

Fast

Excitory (depolarizes) and Inhibitory (hyperpolarizes) effects

149
Q

Metabotropic

A

Receptor: G-coupled protein receptor

Produce a metabolic change in the post-synaptic cell (usually with secondary messengers)

Modulation of neuronal function

Slow

Excitory (indirect), Inhibitory (indirect) and other (cytoplasmic, gene expression, enzymatic) effects

150
Q

Neurotransmitter released into

A

synaptic cleft

151
Q

Neurotransmitter is synthesized in ________ cell

A

pre-synaptic cell

Stored in vesicles at either the active site or interior of axon terminal

152
Q

Each vesicle contains _____ neurotransmitter molecules

A

~5,000

153
Q

neuro transmitter Release requires _____ and ______

A

membrane depolarization and calcium influx

animal physioligy (14 decks)

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