systems🫡 Flashcards
list the five functions of the skeleton
- Framework
- movement
- Protection of vital organs
- Storage for mineral salts and fats
- Blood cell production
define articulation
location where two or more bones meet.
define diaphysis
Is a shaft making up the main portion of the bone
define epiphysis
Is the enlarged ends of the bone. A thin layer of articular cartilage covers each epiphysis
where are red bone marrow located
in spongy/cancellous bone
where is yellow bone marrow located
the medullary cavity
what is the function of red bone marrow
red bone marrow is where red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells are created
what is the function of yellow bone marrow
Yellow bone marrow stores fat
list the minerals which are stored as salts in bone
potassium
sodium
phosphorus
calcium
where are compact bones found
the bone surrounding the medullary cavity
where are cancellous bones found
ends of the long bones
give a possible explanation for where these bones types are found
we can see compact and cancellous bone in a typical long bone such as the bones in the arms and legs, this includes the femur
list the components of the axial section
skull
vertebrae column
thoracic cage
list the components of the appendicular section
shoulder girdle arm hand pelvic girdle leg foot
the vertebral column is divided into five sections, list these
cervical vertebrae thoracic vertebrae lumbar vertebrae sacral vertebrae coccyx vertebrae
describe the structure of the pectoral girdle
the shoulder or pectoral girdle is composed of the clavicle and the scapula
describe the articulation of bones in the pectoral girdle and upper limb
ball and socket joint between your shoulder and humerus bone
describe the structure of the pelvic girdle
made up of serval bones and joints that connect your truck to your lower limbs with varying degrees of movement
describe the articulation of bones in the pelvic girdle and lower limb
ball and socket joint between the pelvis and femur
list the 7 groups of nutrients
Carbohydrates. Proteins. Fats. Vitamins. Minerals. Dietary fiber. Water
how are carbohydrates obtained in our diet and what are they used for
foods high in carbohydrates include bread, pasta, beans, potatoes, rice, and cereals.
Carbohydrates provide the body with glucose, which is converted to energy used to support bodily functions and physical activity
how is protein obtained in our diet and what are they used for
Food sources of protein include meat, fish, dairy, lentils, beans, and tofu.
Protein is essential for the growth and repair of body cells. Insufficient protein can lead to low growth and a weakened immune system. Excess protein may lead to weight gain and liver problems.
how is fats obtained in our diet and what are they used for
milk, meat, and oils food groups. It can also be found in many fried foods, baked goods, and pre-packaged foods
Dietary fats are essential to give your body energy and support cell function. They also help protect your organs and help keep your body warm. Fats help your body absorb some nutrients and produce vital hormones, too.
how are vitamins obtained in our diet and what are they used for
Eating a mix of foods is the best way to get all the vitamins and minerals you need each day. Fruits and vegetables, whole grains, low-fat dairy products, lean meats, fish, and poultry
they help shore up bones, heal wounds, and bolster your immune system. They also convert food into energy and repair cellular damage.
how are minerals obtained in our diet and what are they used for
meat. cereals. fish. milk and dairy foods. fruit and vegetables. nuts
Minerals are necessary for 3 main reasons: building strong bones and teeth. controlling body fluids inside and outside cells. turning the food you eat into energy.
how is fibre obtained in our diet and what are they used for
Dietary fibre is found in wholegrain cereals and fruit and vegetables.
Fibre is mainly a carbohydrate. The main role of fibre is to keep the digestive system healthy.
how is water obtained in our diet and what are they used for
You get some of the water in your body through the foods you eat. Some of the water is made during the process of metabolism. You also get water through liquid foods and beverages, such as soup, milk, tea, coffee, soda, drinking water, and juices.
Helps Maintain the Balance of Body Fluids
define digestion
Digestion is the complex process of turning the food you eat into nutrients, which the body uses for energy, growth and cell repair needed to survive.
what is the difference between chemical and mechanical digestion
chemical digestion is the chemical break down of large, complex molecules into smaller, simpler molecules
mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food particles. it involves the following processes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine
what are the six essential activities of the digestive system
ingestion of food and water
mechanical digestion of food
chemical digestion of food
movement of food along the alimentary canal
absorption of digested food and water into the blood and lymph
elimination of material that is not absorbed
describe the mechanical and chemical digestion of food in the mouth
Your teeth carry out mechanical digestion by crushing and grinding the food into smaller pieces
As the food is chewed is mixed with saliva fluid that is secreted into the mouth cavity by three pairs of salivary glands. It contains mucus to lubricate the food and a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase.
what is a bolus
a bolus is a ball-like mixture of food and saliva that forms in the mouth during the process of chewing
how is food bolus moved from the mouth to the stomach
when food bolus is soft enough that it can easily be swallowed and propelled through the alimentary canal.
it will move down the oesophagus by a process called peristalsis.
peristalsis is the rhymitically contraction of circular muscle down the oesophagus that pushes food down the oesophagus
peristalsis will continue all the way down the oesophagus until it reaches the stomach
how is food digested within the stomach
Mechanical digestion in the stomach is achieved by waves of muscular contraction that move along the stomach wall. The stomach’s oblique, circular and longitudinal muscles enable the stomach to contract in a variety of ways to churn food and mix it with stomach juices. The stomach breaks down food into a soup-like consistency called chyme
Glands in your stomach lining make stomach acid and enzymes that break down food
what are the three parts that make up the small intestine
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
what is the function of the pancreas
produces pancreatic juice containing enzymes for digesting proteins, lipids and nucleic acids
what is the function of the liver
produces bile, which is stored and concentrated in the gall bladder. Bile emulsifies lipids in the small intestine
what is the function of the gall bladder
stores bill and releases it into the small intestine, where the bile emulsifies lipids
describe the digestion of food within the small intestine
Mechanical digestion also continues in the small intestine through a process called segmentation.
segmentation is the process of the small intestine forming segments by contracting ends, circular muscle in the segment control and relax repeating
digestion also continues under the influence of
pancreatic juice- secreted by the pancreas via the pancreatic duct
bile- produced by the liver, but stored in the gall bladder and secreted into the small intestine via the bile duct
intestinal juice- secreted by glands in the lining of the small intestine
how are nutrients absorbed from the small intestine into the bloodstream?
vitamins and minerals will enter the bloodstream through simple diffusion
glucose and amino acids will enter the bloodstream through active transport
fatty acids and glycerol will enter the lateral through simple diffusion.
what are the seven parts that make up the large intestine
caecum appendix ascending colon transverse colon descending colon rectum anal sphicter
how are nutrients absorbed from the large intestine into the bloodstream?
absorbs water and vitamins
some bacteria produce vitamins, which are then absorbed through the walls of the blood.
describe the process of defecation
Defecation is defined as the final act of digestion, by which organisms eliminate their undigested waste material from the digestive tract via the anus.
list the functions of the circulatory system
- transport oxygen + nutrients
- transport carbon dioxide and wastes
- transport chemical messengers (hormones)
- maintains pH
- distributes heat to maintain body temperature
- maintains water and ion concentrations
- protect against diseases
- clotting
why is a circulatory needed in a multicellular organism such as humans, but not in single-celled animals such as algae or bacteria
Unicellular organisms do not need a circulatory system because they are much simpler in structure than compared to multicellular organisms.
unicellular organisms don’t have the number of organs and tissues that require blood and oxygen then what multicellular organism have
describe the Flow of blood through the heart
- The blood first enters the right atrium.
- The blood then flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.
- When the heart beats, the ventricle pushes blood through the pulmonic valve into the pulmonary artery.
- The pulmonary artery carries blood to the lungs where it “picks up” oxygen.
- It then leaves the lungs to return to the heart through the pulmonary vein.
- The blood enters the left atrium.
- It drops through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.
- The left ventricle then pumps blood through the aortic valve and into the aorta.
- Blood returns to the heart from the body via the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava.
- The vena canvas pump blood into the right atrium and the cycle begins all over again.
explain how the atrioventricular valve operate
it separates the atria from the ventricles, allows blood to flow from the atria to the ventricles, but prevents flow in the opposite direction.
The right AV valve is called the tricuspid valve. and the left AV is called the mitral or bicuspid valve
explain how semilunar valves operate
they are one-way valves that separate the ventricles from major arteries. The aortic valve separates the left ventricle from the aorta, while the pulmonary valve separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery.
As the ventricles contract, ventricular pressure exceeds arterial pressure, the semilunar valves open and blood is pumped into the major arteries. However, when the ventricles relax, arterial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure and the semilunar valves snap shut
explain pulmonary circulation
the right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena carva
pumps it to the lungs to be oxygenated via the pulmonary artery
explain systematic circulation
the left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps it out to the body through the aorta
what is systole
the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood from the chambers into the arteries.
what is diastole
is measured when the heart relaxes and fills up with blood
describe the structure of arteries
the artery wall is much thicker compared to the walls of veins as blood is coming directly from the heart and must withstand a large amount of pressure
describe the structure of capillaries
A capillary wall is very thin and composed of (endothelium only) a single layer of cells.
A capillary wall is often highly permeable, partly because it’s very thin and partly because of holes in and between cells in some capillaries (particularly those with high demand of exchange eg endocrine glands that release hormones)
describe the structure of veins
the vein wall is much thinner/smaller than artery walls as the pressure of blood passing through is much lower
function of arteries , capillaries, veins
arteries: carry blood away from the heart
capillary: are tiny vessels that carry blood between cells
veins: carry blood toward the heart
how is blood pressure in the arteries maintained?
due to the pressure in the blood, the artery will expand. the smooth muscles in the artery wall will contract to push blood forward. blood want travel back due to the semivalve
what is venous blood
venous blood is deoxygenated blood that flows from tiny capillary blood vessels within the tissues into progressively larger veins to the right side of the heart.
what is arterial blood
arterial blood is the oxygenated blood that is pumped through the arterys of the body
explain why blood pressure within the veins is not affected by ventricular systole and diastole
blood is passed through the capillary network which slows down the blood flow
explain how the contraction of skeletal muscles assists in the flow of blood in veins toward the heart
in many body regions, the pressure within the veins can be increased by the contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscle.
This mechanism, known as the skeletal muscle pump helps the lower-pressure veins counteract the force of gravity, increasing pressure to move blood back to the heart. As leg muscles contract, for example during walking or running, they exert pressure on nearby veins with their numerous one-way valves.
This increased pressure causes blood to flow upward, opening valves superior to the contracting muscles so blood flows through. Simultaneously, valves inferior to the contracting muscles close; thus, blood should not seep back down toward the feet.
what is a pulse
the number of times the heart beats within a certain time period, usually a minute
where in the body can pulses be felt
your wrist, inside the elbow, at the side of your neck, or on the top of your foot
what enables pulse to be felt in these locations
you can feel a pulsing in some of the blood vessels close to the skin’s surface
are pulse felt in arteries or veins or both
All arteries have a pulse, but it is most easily felt at points where the vessel approaches the surface of the body.
describe how small molecules such as sugars and amino acids move from the capillaries to the tissue fluid
Small molecules can cross into and out of capillaries via simple or facilitated diffusion.
describe how tissue fluid is taken into the capillaries at the venous end
lymphatic system
osmosis is the process that occurs when the blood in the capillary enters the tissue becoming tissue fluid
what system exists to remove this excess fluid
the lymphatic system
what is the main function of the lymphatic system
to collect some of the fluid that escapes from the blood capillaries and return it to the circulatory system.
the lymphatic system is also an important part of the body’s internal defence against disease casing organism
what does the lymphatic system consist of
a network of lymph capillaries joined to larger lymph vessels (also called lymphatic vessels or lymphatics)
lymph nodes, which are located along the length of some lymph vessels
describe the process when the lymphatic system is in action
as blood enters the capillaries, tissue fluid passes through the capillary walls. This fluid is then returned back to the capillary however with a reduced amount. As some fluid has been left behind.
the lymphatic system collects this excessive tissue fluid and returns it to the circulation
the collected tissue fluid is considered to be lymph as it enters the lymph capillary
what are lymph nodes
in the lymphatic system, there are lymph nodes that act as a filter for the lymph. these filters will remove proteins, bacteria, viruses, fungi
the lymph nodes contain a mesh that traps these molecules. these molecules are then destroyed
where can you find lymph nodes
you can find lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, groan and back of knee
describe what blood cell is present in lymph nodes
white blood cells are located in the lymph node, therefore when bacteria, viruses, proteins, and fungi are trapped in the mesh-like filter. the white blood cell then comes along and destroys them
what is the difference between the circulatory system and the lymphatic system
the circulatory system is the organ system comprising a network of organs and vessels that is responsible for the flow of blood, nutrients, hormones, oxygen, and other gases to and from cells while the lymphatic system is one of the two parts of the circulatory system.
While the lymphatic system is a network of vessels just like the cardiovascular system but lacks a pumping heart, and consists of the only type of vessels with valves and nodes at certain places like the armpit, thymus, spleen, and neck.
what are the functions of blood
transport nutrients
regulate body temperature
rugulate body’s fluids
protect the body against diseases
describe plasma
plasma is mixture of water with dissolved substances such as sugar and salts the function of plasma is to transport the components of blood including cells, nutrients, wastes, hormones, proteins and antibodies, throughout the body
what are the components of blood
scientific name + types of white blood cells
- red blood cells - erythrocytes
- white blood cells - leucocytes
a) lymphocytes
b) granulocytes - platelets - thrombocytes
- plasma
where do all blood cells originate from
red bone marrow of bones
what is the appearence of red blood cells
the cells are a biconcave shape
they are flattened in the middle on both sides.
red blood cells do not contain a nucleus, this increases their flexibility and therefore allows them to move through the blood vessels
what is the appearence of white blood cells
Contrary to their name, white blood cells are colorless but can appear as a very light purple to pink color when examined under a microscope and colored with dye. These extremely tiny cells have a round shape with a distinct center membrane (nucleus
what is the appearence of platelets blood cells
Their shape varies greatly, but they are usually round, oval, or rod-shaped. Platelets stain light blue to purple and are very granular.
appearance of plasma
they are small fragments of cells
When separated from the rest of the blood, plasma is a light yellow liquid
what is the function of red blood cells
to transport oxygen around the body and to remove carbon dioxide
what is the function of white blood cells
in protecting the body from infection
what is the function of platelets?
responsible for clotting blood at wounds to prevent severe blood loss
what is the function of plasma
transport hormones, nutrients and proteins
what is the function of the two types of white blood cells
lymphocytes- create antibodies that are specific to one variable
granulocytes- the granulocytes will come along and consume the virus. the granulocytes are not specific and will dissolve all cells unless they have a recognition protein
what is the function of the respiratory system
- deliver oxygen from the atmosphere to the lungs
- provide a method of gaseous exchange within the lungs
- create speech
- facilitate our sense of smell
- protection from dust and other microparticles
how does the nasal cavity prepare air for entry into the lungs
the air that enters through the nasal cavity is warmed and humidified. there are also hairs and mucus lining the nose. this traps debris, preventing ut from reaching the lungs
how does the epiglottis prevent the entry of food and water into the larynx/trachea
the epiglottis is a flap of elastic cartilage. during inhalation, the epiglottis covers the oesophagus, guiding the air into the trachea
when swallowing, the epiglottis covers the larynx, preventing food from entering it.
what is the pleura
it is a membrane that covers the lungs. It is smooth and moist to prevent friction during inspiration and expiration.
how does the pleura allow the lungs to increase and decrease in size?
the pleura is smooth and moist, therefore, allowing the membrane and wall of the lung to slide easily over one another as the lungs inflate and deflate during respiration
what is the structure of the trachea
about 20 rings of tough cartilage. The back part of each ring is made of muscle and connective tissue. Moist, smooth tissue called mucosa lines the inside of the trachea with cilia
what is the function of the trachea?
a windpipe that carries air from the lungs
what is the structure of bronchi
two large primary tubes coming from the trachea
what is the structure of the bronchioles
very fine tubes with walls of smooth muscles
what is the function of the bronchus
they divide into secondary or tertiary bronchi and carry air to and from the lungs
what is the function of the bronchioles
carry air into the lungs
how is an increased surface area of the lungs achieved and how does this affects gaseous change?
Each lung contains millions of alveoli. The small round alveoli allow for an amazingly large surface area for this gas exchange to take place. and therefore creating a larger surface area, meaning a faster rate of diffusion
where in the lung does a gaseous exchange take place
in the alveoli
how are alveoli specialised for gaseous exchange
The alveoli are covered by a rich blood supply of capillaries, this provides a diffusion gradient for oxygen to move into the blood and carbon dioxide to move into the lungs.
The alveoli have a high surface area to volume ratio for gas exchange.
Finally, the alveolar walls are only one cell thick, so the gases can diffuse easily across.
how does the process of gaseous exchange occur
Air enters the alveoli when you breathe in. The capillaries receive deoxygenated blood from the artery to the lungs. Carbon dioxide diffuses from a high concentration in the alveolus to a low concentration in the blood. Oxygen diffuses from a high concentration in the alveoli into a low concentration in the bloodstream. The heart receives oxygenated blood from the capillaries.
in what direction are oxygen and carbon dioxide moving
during gas exchange oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream. At the same time, carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the lungs.
describe the ways in which oxygen is transported in the bloodstream
- 3% of oxygen is carried in the blood plasma
- 97% of oxygen is carried in the red blood cells as haemoglobin
describe the ways in which carbon dioxide is transported in the bloodstream
8% dissolved in plasma
22% combines with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemglobin
70% is carried in the plasma as bicarbonate ions
CO2 + H2O <> H2CO3 <> H^+ + HCO3^-
H2CO3 = carbonic acid
HCO3^- = hydrogen carbonate or bircarbonate
describe the location of the diaphragm
The diaphragm, is located below the lungs, and at the base of the chest cavity. it is the major muscle of respiration. It is a large, dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and continually, and most of the time, involuntarily
describe the location of the intercostal muscles
Intercostal muscles are muscles that present within the rib cage
describe how inspiration occurs
air must be below atmospheric pressure for air to flow into the lungs. The diaphragm contracts and flattens and intercostal muscles contract to increase lung volumes to reduce air pressure. The rib cage moves up and out.
describe how expiration occurs
The diaphragm arches more into the chest cavity and intercostal muscles relax, and the ribs move down and in reducing lung volume. The air pressure in the lungs is higher than the air pressure outside the body, pushing air out of the body.
