Study Guides for Week 3 and 4 (complete - looked up unsure ones) Flashcards

Question

Plasma derived mediators: the complement system

Answer 1

- consists of over 30 plasma proteins - make the inflammatory response work better and stronger: -- cell lysis: allows for granules to be released -- opsonization: recognizing and tagging -- chemotaxis: signaling - anaphylation: -- degranulation of mast cells -- release of histamine -- vasodilation and increase vascular pemeability

Answer 2

Pregnancy Vs liver regeneration

Answer 3

Are a subgroup of cytokines produced by the thymus and lymphoid tissue Control the movement and positioning of immune cells (T cells, B cells, dendritic cells) in tissues and *critical* for function on innate immune system warn other host cells of danger - signaling Too many can cause damage to cells and tissues ## Footnote Cell recruitment

Answer 4

In acute inflammation - 2-3% of WBCs; move like neutrophils - mildly phagocytic - react slower, arrive 2-3 hours after injury - live longer - play a role in allergic reactions (work with basophils in allergic rhinitis and asthma)

Answer 5

- Characterized by antigen-specific response: has to be activated to work - considered to be third line of defense - relies on previous exposure to an antigen -- stronger -- more prolonged Has three types: - humoral - cell-mediated - regulatory T cells

Answer 6

- closed packed cells, layers, constant shedding and protective layer of keratin -- salty acidic environment inhibit colonization - lysozyme makes cells easier for phagocytosis Mucous membranes: tight epithelial cells; mucus traps and washes away along with saliva Cilia: moves microbes towards the throat so can be expelled by coughing Surfactants in respiratory tract "opsonize" or tag the cells which need to have phagocytosis GI tract --> goblet cells secrete mucin --> hydrated form: mucus; traps pathogens for destruction

Answer 7

in acute inflammation - activate inflammation -- membrane permeability -- leukocyte chemotaxis (signaling injury and response of other WBC) - when activated: release several pro-inflammatory mediators -- histamine -- heparin

Answer 8

During a fever, the body's temperature set point increases due to the hypothalamus resetting itself to a higher level, causing the body to actively try to maintain a higher core temperature than usual

Answer 9

Substances which generate the response from the host (trigger an immune response) - aka immunogens - can be bacteria, viruses, parasites; even pollen, poison ivy, bee stinges Epitopes work with other adaptive immune cells?

Answer 10

*Margination and Adhesion* *Transmigration* *Chemotaxis* *Phagocytosis*

Answer 11

Online: When cells and tissues are exposed to chemicals, potential effects include: cell death, damage to cell membranes, disruption of cellular processes, DNA mutations, impaired protein synthesis, inflammation, tissue damage, and depending on the chemical and exposure level, even cancer development; the specific effects depend on the type of chemical, concentration, exposure duration, and the tissue involved.

Answer 12

are in both innate and adaptive; in first line defense in innate immunity - scavenger; final clean up - go to all tissues; long lived

Answer 13

Physiologic: exercise Compensatory: Donating a Kidney

Answer 14

Vary based on fluid type, plasma protein content and the +/- of certain cells Serous exudate: watery protein low in protein content Serosanguinous: RBCs that leak from capillary injury Purulent exudate: pus is filled with neutrophils protein and tissue debris

Answer 15

contains concentrated areas of the T and B lymphocytes, dendritic cells

Answer 16

Not sure on this? Second line of defense: - inflammatory response - antimicrobial proteins - phagocytosis

Answer 17

- neutrophils - dendritic cells - monocytes/macrophages - natural killer cells

Answer 18

- anticoagulants - corticosteroids - alcohol - ACE inhibitors - ASA and other anti-platelets - lithium: NSAIDs increase levels - many herbals will increase the antiplatelet effects: -- chamomile -- ginkgo -- ginseng -- ginger -- garlic --dong quai

Answer 19

*Transmigration* - leukocytes migrate through the vessel wall

Answer 20

- allergy (watch closely in asthmatics) - bleeding abnormalities - renal dysfunction - NEVER GIVE TO CHILDREN UNDER AGE 18, CAUSES REYE SYNDROME - no pregnancy: may see it though in those with coagulation issues

Answer 21

Functions: - directly impede the function of the pathogen - neutralize secreted toxins and enzymes - facilitate the removal of antigens by phagocytic cells - participate in cell-mediated immunity - activation of opsonization (tagging) - activation of inflammation

Answer 22

- associated with inflammation - pain - edema - muscle contractions

Answer 23

It may cause cancer.

Answer 24

maturation of functional T-cells - atrophies with age and replaced by fat, around puberty

Answer 25

- potent vasodilator - *helps keep endothelial cells healthy and smooth* - blocking of nitric oxide production in normal promotes the leukocyte rolling and adhesion - decreases leukocyte recruitment: reduces inflammation -- inflammation in endothelial cells leads to no blockage

Answer 26

- accounts for 6-10% - first one to appear in response to bacterial or viral infections - largest of the immunoglobulins - when IgM present: usually sign of acute infection - activates complement system

Answer 27

- immunity at mucosal surfaces/body fluids -- saliva, tears, breast milk, bronchial, prostate, GI, vaginal secretions) - *primary defense against local infections in mucosal tissues* - prevents attachments of microbes to epithelial cells

Answer 28

- cause liver to produce proteins and colony stimulating factors (blood production) work to improve protein catabolism make the liver produce the acute phase reactants which also include complement, clotting factors and protease inhibitors (idk if this point is for IL-1 and TNF-A or all interleukins because of her ppt set up)

Answer 29

Online: When cells and tissues are exposed to infections, they can experience direct damage from the invading pathogen, including cell death, altered cellular functions, and disruption of tissue integrity, often accompanied by an inflammatory response from the immune system, which can further contribute to tissue damage in some cases; the specific effects depend on the type of pathogen and the tissue involved.

Answer 30

- redness - swelling - heat - pain - loss of function HARPS

Answer 31

- express the CD 8 protein - once activated, they search out and destroy antigens - are able to differentiate what are normal and what are bad - cause apoptosis or programmed death

Answer 32

- guide leukocytes to the site of injury - are mediated by proteins released from the local immune cells -- cause neutrophils to squeeze through endothelial cells endothelial cells help this process by releasing nitric oxide

Answer 33

Good: - important in understanding everything that happens to our bodies - is a normal necessary function that occurs to: -- fight off infection -- heal from an injury - basis of research in many disease states and helps determine treatment Bad: - inflammatory processes in: -- coronary disease and MI -- emphysema, asthma, and chronic bronchitis-inflammatory process -- allergic rhinitis - can become chronic - inflammation = "itis"

Answer 34

-Shivering -"goose bumps" -Non-shivering heat production by liver -Exertion Or Occurs through 5 processes: Radiation: (Most common) Transfer of heat from one place to another Conduction: requires direct contact Convection: Requires fluid flow, such as air or water Evaporation (Sweat) Respiration (insensible)

Answer 35

*Margination and Adhesion* - contact of leukocytes with the endothelial tissue - cytokines cause the endothelial cells to give off cell adhesion molecules (selectin) -- slows flow and causes leukocytes to roll along the endothelial surface -- neutrophils secrete integrins and stick to endothelium - accumulation of leukocytes which occurs when there is decreased volume

Answer 36

Chat gpt response: Active Immunity: - The body produces its own antibodies in response to exposure to an antigen. - It provides long-term or even lifelong protection because the immune system develops memory cells. Naturally Acquired Active Immunity: - Occurs when a person is exposed to a pathogen naturally (e.g., getting infected with a virus or bacteria). - Example: A person gets chickenpox, recovers, and develops immunity. Artificially Acquired Active Immunity: - Occurs when a person is exposed to an antigen through vaccination (without actually getting the disease). - Example: Receiving the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine stimulates the immune system to create antibodies and memory cells. Passive Immunity: - The body receives antibodies from an external source, rather than making its own. - Provides short-term protection because the body does not develop memory cells. Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity: - Occurs when antibodies are passed from mother to baby through the placenta (IgG antibodies) or breast milk (IgA antibodies). - Example: A newborn receiving maternal antibodies provides protection for a few months. Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity: - Occurs when antibodies are injected into a person from an external source (e.g., through an injection of immune globulin). - Example: A person exposed to rabies receives rabies immune globulin (RIG) to provide immediate but short-term protection.

Answer 37

B cells, T cells, natural killer cells, APCs, dendritic cells, neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages

Answer 38

*increased blood flow*: - starts with transient vasoconstriction followed by rapid vasodilation - injured tissue secretes nitric oxide and histamine - causes heat, redness, and pain *Increased vascular permeability*: - causes leakage into the extravascular space and then into the tissues - swelling and pain As fluid moves out, the blood thickens and stagnates so clotting occurs Involves changes to the microcirculation in the capillaries, arterioles, and venules

Answer 39

they both impact COX 1 and 2

Answer 40

B lymphocytes -> plasma cells -> antibodies Designated as plasma/memory cells by the helper T cells - cells transform into antibody secreting plasma cells or memory B cells Plasma cells bind and remove the unique antigen -- lead to opsonization or tagging of cells that need to have phagocytosis Memory cells go to the peripheral cells for the next time the body has exposure to this antigen

Answer 41

- work by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis - inhibits COX-1 and COX-2 - suppress inflammation - pain relief - anti-pyretic - can inhibit platelet aggregation Black box warning: increase risk of cardiovascular events/stroke Avoid use in patients with: - HTN - heart and/or kidney disease - diabetes All inhibit COX 1 and COX2 by blocking synthesis of prostaglandins - can have non-selective COX inhibitors - there is one COX-2 inhibitor: celebrex

Answer 42

All inhibit COX 1 and COX2 by blocking synthesis of prostaglandins - can have non-selective COX inhibitors - there is one COX-2 inhibitor: celebrex

Answer 43

- inflammatory response - antimicrobial proteins - phagocytosis

Answer 44

*Prodrome - Non specific complaints (i.e. aches, pain, etc.) *Chill - Shivering, which causes the core temperature to rise - Complaints of “Freezing to death” - Vasodilatation caused red flushed skin Once the set point has been reached *Defervescence (Fever breaks) - complains of “Burning up” - Diaphoresis

Answer 45

Toxicities: -Tinnitus -Can progress to sweating, fever, dehydration, metabolic acidosis and LOC changes -REYES -Excess bleeding, upset stomach

Answer 46

atypical cervical cells that precede cervical cancer

Answer 47

In acute inflammation - less than 1% of WBC - release histamine and heparin in areas of tissue damage -- also releases serotonin

Answer 48

- tinnitus! - can progress to: -- sweating -- fever -- dehydration -- metabolic acidosis -- LOC changes - medical emergency if OD

Answer 49

same as NSAIDs: - administer with food - assess for gastritis, ulcers, GI bleed - long term use may have PPI (proton pump inhibitor) or H2 blocker use as well - watch creatinine and BUN - assess for CV risk - stop at least one week before surgery - assess for fluid retention/weight gain - IV ibuprofen should be administered over 30 minutes - be certain well hydrated do not stop ASA without confirming with prescribing provider!

Answer 50

- similar to NSAID - do not combine with NSAID - be careful with bleeding - soft toothbrush, good oral care - careful with razors

Answer 51

- attachment of leukocyte to offending agent - engulfment: -- cytoplasm move around and enclose the particle in a phagosome - phagosome fuses with lysosome which contains antibacterial molecules - kills and degradation of the bacteria

Answer 52

Work on endothelial cells and capillary permeability?

Answer 53

- Characterized by “deranged” cell growth of a specific tissue which results is cells of all shapes and sizes - Often results from irritation or inflammation and can be a be precursor of cancer - It is adaptive meaning once the irritation is gone, the dysplasia can resolve or progress to cancer in situ

Answer 54

ASPIRIN (NOT AN NSAID) IBUPROFEN NAPROXEN DICLOFENAC MELOXICAM INDOMETHACIN KETOROLAC

Answer 55

- humoral - cell-mediated - regulatory T cells

Answer 56

Stems initially from multipotential hematopoietic stem cell (hemocytoblast) Two major categories: - Common myeloid progenitor -- RBC, WBC, platelets - Common lymphoid progenitor: lymphocytes

Answer 57

- express the CD4 protein - direct B and lymphocytes and macrophages - secrete cytokines, chemokines -- kill the infected dead cells and stimulate new macrophages - play a role in the amplifying and activation of the humoral response

Answer 58

- When cells are not being used there is decreased demand…the cells will go back to a smaller size and function at a level that is compatible for survival. -- These cells reduce the oxygen consumption and cellular functions by decreasing the number of organelles

Answer 59

When the stratified squamous cells are replace the ciliated columnar cells in the in the trachea and large airways. -EX. Reflux of stomach acid into the esophagus over a prolonged period can cause the lining of the esophagus to change from stratified squamous epithelium to columnar epithelium. EX. Changes in pH, acid base changes, hormones, smoking, alsochol

Answer 60

Tagging of cells - needing to have phagocytosis - antibodies tag antigen

Answer 61

- affect arachidonic acid and stop it before COX 1 and 2 and lipooxygenase can be made - work higher up on the arachidonic acid cascade than NSAIDs - has anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressant properties - metabolized in the liver and excreted via kidneys Numerous side effects: - increase risk of infection - psychiatric effects - adrenal suppression - diabetes - osteoporosis Medications: - prednisone - methyl prednisone - hydrocortisone

Answer 62

- inflammation that has gone haywire - occurs due to: -- unsuccessful resolution of acute inflammation -- low-grade/long-lasting state -- obesity - presence of macrophages and lymphocytes - can be asymptomatic Examples: lung disease, CAD, IBD (numerous disorders related)

Answer 63

where old or damaged RBCs are destroyed

Answer 64

They are best known for their ability to stimulate the migration of cells, most notably white blood cells (leukocytes).

Answer 65

- produced by macrophages and lymphocytes, endothelial cells - help regulate immunity - tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin-1 and 6: responsible for most of symptoms experienced - weight loss and cachexia -- cachexia: a metabolic syndrome that causes involuntary weight loss and muscle wasting - cause fever, hypotension, increased HR, increase cortisol levels, decreased appetite

Answer 66

Process of making B cells Works to rid the body of microbes and toxins - antigen-antibody complexes - clumping of cells - neutralization of toxins, bacteria, viruses - destruction of pathogens - adherence of the antigen to immune cells - phagocytosis - complement activation Has primary and secondary responses

Answer 67

Online: When exposed to radiation, cells and tissues can experience a range of effects, including DNA damage, cell death, impaired function, and potential mutations that can lead to cancer, depending on the radiation dose and the type of tissue involved; high doses can cause immediate effects like skin burns, while lower doses may increase the risk of long-term health issues like cancer.

Answer 68

Actions: - anti-pyretic - analgesia Inhibit prostaglandin production: - reduce swelling and/or pain - lower fever Also inhibits platelet aggregation by stopping thromboxane A and prostacyclin Platelet inhibition within 15-20 minutes if not enteric-coated

Answer 69

Acute inflammatory response Core surrounded by neutrophils A) Inflammation: capillary dilation, fluid exudation, neutrophil migration B) Suppuration: development of suppurative or purulent exudate containing degraded neutrophils and tissue debris C) abscess formation: walling off of the area of purulent exudate to form an abscess

Answer 70

- no pregnancy (Pregnancy Category C) - history of PUD or GI bleed - bleeding disorders - allergies - renal insufficiency - hx of HTN, heart failure, diabetes

Answer 71

- a principle inflammatory mediator in acute response - found in all the tissues; highest concentration in mast cells, basophils and platelets - causes vasodilation and increased vascular permeability - binds to H1 receptors on the endothelial cells (especially on bronchi and causes bronchoconstriction [lungs]) - binds to H2 receptors; is anti-inflammatory (found in large number in stomach and produces acid [GI tract])

Answer 72

Functions against microbes, parasites, bacteria, viruses which replicate inside cells where they can not be destroyed by antibodies *T cells are the major player* Cytotoxic T cells: attack and destroy the target cells Helper T cells (CD4): work to control cells where the pathogen grows in the phagosomes of the macrophages - CD4 cells: secrete interferon -- stimulates microcidal substance in the macrophage which kills the cell

Answer 73

- Changes that occur due to disease process, altered cell function or environmental influences. - Changes occur when extracellular signals and cues “turn on” signaling mechanisms inside the cell identifying some thing needed by the cell - These signals send chemical messengers that alter gene expression -- increase work demand or threats to survival by changing cell size, number, or form -- Serve as a protective mechanism, to prevent cellular and tissue damage - When the reason for cell adaptation is removed, the need for changing gene expression stops and in some instances the cell will go back to normal

Answer 74

- Increase in the # of cells in an organ or a tissue - Occur in tissues which have mitotic division such as the epidermis, intestinal epithelium and glanddular tissue. -Normal adaptive process which occurs from a stimulus. Likely genes responding to messengers in the cell to increase replication. - It is controlled - Usually stops when the stimulus is removed

Answer 75

- is anti-inflammatory and helps deactivate the macrophages when the event is over work to improve protein catabolism make the liver produce the acute phase reactants which also include complement, clotting factors and protease inhibitors (idk if this point is for IL-1 and TNF-A or all interleukins because of her ppt set up)

Answer 76

An increase in cell size and a resulting increase in the amount of functioning tissue - increased workload that is placed usually on the cardias and skeletal muscle - Just can not make more cells - Causes an increase in size. Does not increase # of cells.

Answer 77

Not unusual for a sick older adult to not have a fever or to be very sick with a small elevation - May present with confusion - temperature of 99 may be concerning - Confusion and other symptoms may indicate illness

Answer 78

- largest of the lymph organs - red and white pulp

Answer 79

- administer with food - assess for gastritis, ulcers, GI bleed - long term use may have PPI (proton pump inhibitor) or H2 blocker use as well - watch creatinine and BUN - assess for CV risk - stop at least one week before surgery - assess for fluid retention/weight gain - IV ibuprofen should be administered over 30 minutes - be certain well hydrated

Answer 80

B lymphocytes (B cells): - mature in the bone marrow - *play a major role in humoral immune response* - differentiate into: -- plasma cells and produce antibodies (immunoglobulins) -- memory cells T lymphocytes (T cells): - leave bone marrow early; go to the thymus where they mature - *play a major role in cellular-mediated immunity* - types of T cells: -- helper -- cytotoxic (killer) -- regulatory

Answer 81

Clusters of Differentiation - are cell surface markers/receptors - expressed by the cells at different stages of maturation and activation - over 370 different CD markers Helper T cells: CD4 protein Cytotoxic T (killer) cells: CD8 protein

Answer 82

Are groups of circulating plasma proteins that help defend against microorganisms - Serve as a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity When activated: sets in to play a series of events which end in lysis of pathogens - Three stages: -- initial activation phase -- amplification of inflammation -- late-stage membrane attack response --- CELL LYSIS Help in the disposal of immune complexes and by-products associated with inflammation

Answer 83

- acts in opposition to the coagulation system - main inflammatory mediator is plasmin - plasmin: -- breaks down fibrin clot which increases permeability -- plays role in complement cascade - when clot breaks down, results in FDP's which increases vascular permeability

Answer 84

- immediate reaction to injury to blood vessels and tissues - triggered by many different stimuli: -- injury -- infection -- foreign bodies -- malignancies -- immune reactions - help to remove the "intruder" Two stages of inflammatory response: - vascular stage - cellular stage

Answer 85

(NOT SURE) Could lead to necrosis of tissue? Online: When a cellular membrane is damaged, it loses its ability to selectively regulate what enters and exits the cell, leading to an imbalance in the cell's internal environment, often causing vital components to leak out and ultimately resulting in cell death; this is because the membrane acts as a barrier, maintaining the cell's homeostasis, and damage disrupts this crucial function.

Answer 86

Gastrointestinal: - pain, heartburn, nausea - gastric mucosa damage - GI bleeding Kidneys: - major cause of renal disease and renal failure - increased in those with HTN, heart failure, DM and in older adults electrolyte imbalance Pregnancy: category C

Answer 87

- non-specific part of the immune system (broad spectrum defense) - no memory - plays a role in the inflammatory process, which can actually lead to disease

Answer 88

- antigen receptor to begin the differentiation of B lymphocytes - least understood -- known to play a role in activation of mast cells and basophils

Answer 89

No. But it can progess to Dysplasia. COULD Be precancerous Ex. Barretts esophagus

Answer 90

-Disuse: decreased skeletal muscle use -Denervation: Occurs when limb is paralyzed -Loss of endocrine stimulation: --Menopause -Inadequate nutrition -Ischemia: from decreased oxygen to tissues -Aging

Answer 91

Plasma-derived mediators Cell-derived mediators

Answer 92

Tags cells; memory cells go to peripheral cells for the next time body has exposure to the antigen and can react stronger

Answer 93

- important in allergic and parasitic infections - binds to the mast cells/basophils -- binding of IgE to these triggers histamine to be release and the rest of the inflammatory response and allergic reactions

Answer 94

-- Conversion of normal cells to a different cell type often following an injury or insult from outside stimuli -Replaces the original cells with ones that can better tolerate conditions -Keeps the same tissue types

Answer 95

unsure from online: Histamine plays a key role in innate immunity by acting as a pro-inflammatory mediator, primarily released by mast cells, which triggers a cascade of responses including vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection or injury, essentially facilitating the body's initial response to pathogens or allergens.

Answer 96

play an integral role in both the inflammatory response and immune response - help recognize foreign invaders - secrete cytokine and chemokines - suppress pro-inflammatory mediators - express MHC during infections

Answer 97

- found in phospholipids; release of arachidonic acid leads to eicosanoid mediators - make prostaglandins and leukotrienes (promote inflammatory response) - thromboxane A: helps with platelet aggregation and constriction

Answer 98

-Anti-pyretic -Analgesia -Inhibits prostaglandin production (reduces swelling/pain and Lowers fever) -Also inhibits platelet aggregation

Answer 99

- most abundant of the circulating immunoglobulins (75-80%) - the only one which crosses the placenta and transfer immunity from mother to baby "starter immune set" - protects against bacteria, viruses, and parasite infections - activates complement system - enhances phagocytosis

Answer 100

- similar to histamine; not as potent - also similar to basophils - found in platelets, mast cells, certain cells in GI tract, spleen and nerve cells - have a receptor for IgE - along with histamine -> increases vascular permeability and vasodilation

Answer 101

Are proteins produced and secreted by most cells in the body - interleukins (IL), interferons (IFNs), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) - can be pro-inflammatory (TNF, IL-1, IL-6) or anti-inflammatory (IL-10) Act as chemical messengers; aiding in the communication among cells; are secreted and bind to receptors on targeted cells - play a role in both innate/adaptive immunity - not stored and are short livers - pleiotropic: can act on different cells, not just one Produce colony stimulating factors to induce different cell types in the bone marrow

Answer 102

- increase capillary permeability and stimulate pain receptors - factor XII in the coagulation cascade can activate this system - when the system is activated, leads to the formation of bradykinin which: -- binds with beta 1 and beta 2 receptors -- increases dilation and vascular permeability -- smooth muscle contraction -- works with prostaglandin

Answer 103

should be nice and smooth, but is rough with inflammation idfk

Answer 104

- typically cause the fever - IL-1 stimulates the release of neutrophils causing neutrophilia work to improve protein catabolism make the liver produce the acute phase reactants which also include complement, clotting factors and protease inhibitors (idk if this point is for IL-1 and TNF-A or all interleukins because of her ppt set up)

Answer 105

- gets rid of pathogens and infected cells through the adaptive system - APC: bind the antigen to the lymphocytes - acts like a recruiter: produces signaling proteins that active other immune cells -- release cytokines/chemokines - scavenger: perform the final clean up

Answer 106

Examples/types: - kinin system - coagulation system - complement system - fibrinolysis system these are non-reactive until activated

Answer 107

Primary response: cell waiting for antibody to be detected; clonal selection occurs - B cells differentiate into plasma cells which create the antibodies - activation takes 1-2 weeks and many get better during primary stage -- IgM is produced in large amounts then IgG

Answer 108

- first line of defense: constantly roaming body - can recognize and kill bacteria, viruses, stressed, or tumor cells - release cytotoxic granules (performin and granzyme) resulting in apoptosis - solicit help from other types of immune cells by releasing proteins in the blood (cytokines) are a subclass of granule-filled (granular) lymphocytes innate immune system

Answer 109

"good guys" - found in most tissues - macrophage differentiation - platelet aggregation - renal function also gastric mucus, clotting, stickiness of platelet

Answer 110

- inflammatory mediators - made from arachidonic acid by the action of COX - strengthen histamine - increase vascular permeability - neutrophil chemotaxis - causes pain by a direct effect on nerves

Answer 111

Online: When cells and tissues are exposed to electricity, the primary effects can include disruption of cell membranes through electroporation (creating temporary pores), causing changes in ion balance, potential damage to cellular components, heat generation due to electrical resistance, and depending on the intensity, can lead to cell death, tissue damage, muscle contractions, and nerve stimulation, all depending on the voltage, current density, and duration of exposure.

Answer 112

because of the increased blood flow: increased pain and redness because of increased vascular permeability: swelling

Answer 113

Are a group of immune cells that mediate the cellular response by processing and present antigens for recognition by certain lymphocytes (T cells) - begins the transition from innate to adaptive immunity - express the MHC molecules on their membrane - involved in T-cell activation - "present" the antigen to the immune system APCs include: (they chop up the antigen and move it to the surface for the MHC complex) - macrophages - B lymphocytes - dendritic cells

Answer 114

are agranulocytes - monocytes account for 3% of WBCs - play a role in both inflammatory response and immune response - as they mature, become macrophages: live longer and better phagocytosis - assist in producing inflammatory mediators - live longer so they can maintain chronic inflammation

Answer 115

Leukocytes: - Granulocytes [poly nucleated]: -- neutrophils -- eosinophils -- basophils -- mast cells - Agranulocytes [single nucleus]: -- monocytes -- macrophages -- lymphocytes -- these tend to have a bigger role in immune response than in inflammation

Answer 116

Part of an antigen that binds to a specific antigen receptor on the surface of a B or T cell that triggers a cellular immune response

Answer 117

- lymphocytes are the smallest leukocytes - work with macrophages and work in chronic inflammation - plasma cells develop from B lymphocytes

Answer 118

Secondary response: occurs with repeated exposure - recognition occurs faster - minimal IgM but large amounts of IgG titers, booster shot

Answer 119

Enables the t-lymphocytes to determine "healthy vs unhealthy" cells - recognition of self/non-self Person's MHC proteins are unique and impact immune responses and susceptibility to certain disease - human leukocyte antigen (HLA): on chromosome 6; are proteins on cell surface and define a person's tissue type - proteins involved in antigen presentation - encode for parts of complement system Are large cluster of genes on chromosome 6 (3 classes: I, II, III

Answer 120

Non-physiologic hyperplasia, also called pathological hyperplasia, is different from physiologic hyperplasia because it refers to an abnormal increase in cell production within a tissue or organ, often caused by excessive hormonal stimulation or other abnormal stimuli, while physiologic hyperplasia is a normal, controlled increase in cell numbers that occurs as a natural response to a physiological need, like during pregnancy or puberty.

Answer 121

- collection of lymph located at entrance to digestive and respiratory tracts - no afferent lymphatic vessels