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0011 > Stats > Flashcards

Stats Flashcards

1
Q

Logical Errors

A
  • Ad Hominem
  • Appeal to Authority
  • Appeal to Ignorance
  • False dichotomy
  • Pragmatic fallacy
  • Weasel words
  • Confusion of correlation and causations
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2
Q

Appeal to Authority

A

You believe something is true because someone very important said it

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3
Q

Ad Hominem

A

Attacking the researcher for being disreputable instead of the evidence

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4
Q

Appeal to Ignorance

A

If you are not certain about your argument, then mine must be true

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5
Q

False Dichotomy

A

Considering only the two extremes in a continuum of intermediate possibilities

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6
Q

Pragmatic Fallacy

A

Something is true because something else works

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7
Q

Weasel Words

A

Use of euphemisms and misleading terminology

  • Scientists say that…
  • Clinical studies have shown that…
  • This medicine may help with…

E.G. Low fat, natural, real fruits, chemical free

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8
Q

Transparency and skepticism

A
  • Challenge existing theories
  • Peer review
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9
Q

Authority vs Theories vs Evidence

A
  • Should not rely on authorities
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10
Q

Confusion of Correlation and Causation

A

Since two things go together, one must have led to the other

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11
Q

Constructs/Concept

A
  • Hypothetical description of something that is not real

E.G. Intelligence, anxiety, motivation

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12
Q

Pre-scientific Constructs

A
  • Cold and hot “energy”
  • Spirit forces
  • A pinch (of salt)
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13
Q

Scientific Constructs

A
  • Heat energy
  • Time in seconds
  • Gram
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14
Q

Conceptual Definition

A
  • Describing a construct in terms of what it is and what it is not
  • How it might relate to existing theories
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15
Q

Reification

A
  • AVOID
  • How someone’s personality reacts to the world

E.G. people belieing a certain gambling machine has greater luck

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16
Q

Falsifiability

A
  • CONSIDER
  • If you create something that cannot be measured, there will never be any way to tell if its real

E.G. There are fairies in my garden

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17
Q

Operational definition of construct

A
  • How the construct is measured

E.G.
Motivation = Rate of button pressing
Memory = Number of Things Recalled
Learning = Decrease in Time to Solve Puzzle

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18
Q

Problems with operational definition of construct

A
  • Operational definition is not a construct
  • Finding a way to measure it does not make it real
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19
Q

Self-Report

A
  • Are you racist?
  • People can answer dishonestly
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20
Q

Social Desirability Scale

A
  • How likely will respondents give answers that sound good instead of answers that are true
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21
Q

Direct Measures

A
  • What’s your favourite painting
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22
Q

Indirect Measures

A
  • Warmness of carpet at specific paintings
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23
Q

Anecdotes

A
  • Interpreted stories of a single occurrence in the past
  • Theory and evidence is mixed together

E.G. I was sick so I did X and now I’m better so X made me better

  • There were so many other factors that could make you feel better
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24
Q

Case Studies

A
  • Theory and evidence are separated
  • Identifying the specific factor that caused you to feel better
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25
Q

Correlational Studies

A
  • At least two variables are measured from each person to find relationship between variables
26
Q

CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION

A

If X correlates with Y, it could be either

  • X → Y
  • Y → X
  • Z → X or Z → Y
27
Q

Correlation Coefficient: +

A

As values on one variable get bigger, values on the other get bigger

28
Q

Correlation Coefficient: -

A

As variables on one variable get bigger, values on the other get smaller

29
Q

Independent Variable

A

The presumed caused and what is manipulated

30
Q

Dependent Variable

A

What is measured

31
Q

Random Allocation

A

Participants are given an experimental condition at random

32
Q

Random Selection

A

Participants are chosen randomly from a population

33
Q

Replication

A

Study is repeated with same method and same results are produce

34
Q

Blinding

A

Single Blind

  • Participants are unaware of which condition they are in

Double Blind

  • Participants are unaware of which condition they are in
  • Researchers are unaware which condition is being run
35
Q

Internal Validity

A

How certain we are that changes in the IV caused changes in the DV

36
Q

External Validity

A

Extent to which findings from the study can be generalised to the population at large

37
Q

True Experiment

A
  • All independent variables are randomly allocated
  • Controlled variables
  • Establish cause and effect
38
Q

Quasi Experiment

A
  • Less control over variables or no control variable
  • Casual inference
  • Lower internal validity but higher external validity
39
Q

Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

A

A person comes to believe in what they do to reduce internal conflict

40
Q

Alternative Hypothesis

A

Suggests there is a relationship or difference

41
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

Suggests that there is no relationship or difference

  • If we reject the null hypothesis → We have evidence of an effect
  • If we retain the null hypothesis → We have no evidence of anything
42
Q

Experimental Hypothesis

A

Explicitly defines the expected change or effect

43
Q

Mode

A

Most frequent score

  • Advantages: Unaffected by extreme values
  • Disadvantages: if all cancers are grouped together cancer is the most common way to die, but if separate cancers are considered road fatalities have a higher rank
44
Q

Median

A

Middle score

  • Avantages: Unaffected by extreme values
  • Disadvantages: Not based on all values
45
Q

Mean

A

Average score

  • Advantages: Takes all scores into account
  • Disadvantages: Affected by extreme values
46
Q

Standard Deviation

A
  1. Count the number of scores
  2. Add up the scores and find their mean
  3. Find the deviation scores for every score
  4. Square every deviation sore then add them up
  5. Divide by the number of squares
  6. Take the square root
47
Q

Inferential Statistics

A
  • Population
  • Sample
48
Q

Sampling Distribution

A
  • Simulate an experiment being run over and over again
  • Shows variability across experiments
  • Shows likelihood of obtaining a result if the null is true
49
Q

Raw Score Distribution

A
  • Shows variability across individuals
  • Shows likelihood of obtaining a particular score
50
Q

Inferential Statistics: POPULATION

A
  • Entire collection in which you are interested
  • Parameters
51
Q

Normal Distribution

A

Two thirds of all scores fall within one standard deviation of the mean

52
Q

Inferential Statistics: SAMPLE

A
  • Selection from the entire collection
  • Statistics
53
Q

P-Value

A

Probability of results occuring due to random chance

If the probability is high we retain the null hypothesis

  • If p>0.05 retain

If the probability is low we reject the null hypothesis

  • If p<0.05 reject

The lower the p, the better, since less likely to have occurred by random chance

54
Q

Probabilistic Nature of Conclusions

A

See docs (table)

55
Q

Statistical Significance

A

How likely the effect was due to chance

56
Q

Practical Significance

A
  • How useful is the effect
  • Is it worth investigating further
57
Q

Power

A
  • Probability of finding an effect (rejecting the null hypothesis while it is false)
58
Q

Type 1 Error

A
  • Probability that the null hypothesis is incorrectly rejected when it is actually true
  • Detecting an effect when there isn’t one
59
Q

Type 2 Error

A
  • Probability that the null hypothesis is retained when it is actually false
  • Fail to detect an effect when there is one
60
Q

Denialism

A
  • Finding a few imperfections in a theory and disproving every aspect of the theory

0011 (12 decks)

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