SSCI 318 Exam 3 not book questions Flashcards

1
Q

Which communicable diseases pose the greatest global health challenges? Which interventions have proved most successful in combating them?

A

The communicable diseases of HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, Malaria, diarrheal disease, and neglected tropical diseases. Some of the interventions are CASES, They are mostly diseases of poverty that also reflect a lack of access to safe water and sanitation, poor knowledge of appropriate health behaviors, and a lack of health services that are geared to meet the highest-priority needs among the poor. In addition, several of these diseases are highly stigmatized, efforts to control them must be carried out in countries with weak health systems, and considerably more financing is needed for these efforts than has been available. vaccination and breastfeeding

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2
Q

Why are we seeing so many emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases nowadays?

A

people do not take their full medication to eliminate a disease, making the disease stronger.

■ The increasing use of antibiotics in some settings now and in the past
■ Poor prescribing and dispensing practices
■ Inappropriate use of the drugs by prescribers, dispensers, and patients
■ Failure of patients to take appropriate doses of drugs
■ The use of counterfeit or poor quality drugs that do not contain the appropriate level of therapeutic ingredients
■ Too much use of antibiotics in agriculture, cattle and poultry raising, and fish farming
■ Weak health systems, with poor laboratory capacity to diagnose disease and test for drug susceptibility
■ Weak infection control in healthcare settings
■ Poor sanitation and hygiene
■ A lack of surveillance, leading to late detection of the disease

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3
Q

Which noncommunicable diseases pose the greatest global health challenges? Which interventions have proved most successful in combating them?

A

This includes cardiovascular (Ischemic) disease, diabetes (type 1 and 2), cancers, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, vision and hearing loss, and mental health disorders.

The single most important step that low- and middle-income countries can take now to reduce the burden of noncommunicable diseases is to reduce the consumption of tobacco.

■ Focusing on prevention and the main risk factors of tobacco, alcohol, dietary risks, and the lack of physical activity

■ Implement WHO-recommended approaches to diet, physical activity, alcohol, and the marketing of unhealthy foods to children

■ Promote cost-effective measures to reduce salt, sugar, and saturated fats in foods and eliminate trans fats in food

■ Promote vaccination against the infectious causes of NCDs, including the vaccines against hepatitis B and HPV

Increase funding.

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4
Q

How hard is it to change health behaviors that contribute to the non-communicable disease burden? How can more effective strategies for changing behavior be developed?

A

It has become really hard to change behaviors that contribute to non-communciable diseases such as smoking or drinking excessive amount of alcohol. Use the economic incentives to change people’s behaviors. For example, the Polish government succeeded in countering the powerful economic influence of the tobacco industry and inducing major shifts in smoking,

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5
Q

What is the difference between HIV/AIDS in the U.S./Europe and in Africa?

A

In the United States/Europe there is more funding to have treatment for the disease to live a normal life, where in Africa getting HIV/AIDS is still considered a death sentence because of the very weak health systems.

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6
Q

What effects has the COVID-19 pandemic had on access to chronic disease care in India, China, Hong Kong, Korea, and Vietnam?

A

Lockdowns caused the healthcare system to be used less. Moreover, during the pandemic, there were less available hospital beds for non-emergency health problems since all of them were being utilized for the covid virus.

The Covid-19 pandemic limited access to chronic care in all of these countries. Furthermore, the covid-19 pandemic cause mobility restrictions in the 5 countries, and there was a disproportionate impact for the most rural and marginalized areas of the countries worsening chronic systems such as diabetes with delaying care.
Routine screening and continuity of care face significant challenges in managing the pandemic loss of income and accessing healthcare or medications linked with diabetes symptoms. In addition to having no HSS and training for community workers, there were no other financial incentives for the workers to work steadily.

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7
Q

To what extent do chronic diseases (and which ones) effect the mortality and severity (ICU admission and ARDS admission) of COVID-19?

A

Among COVID-19 patients, hypertension was a very common condition and was associated with higher severity, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and mortality. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease was the strongest predictor for COVID-19 severity, admission to ICU, and mortality, while asthma was associated with a reduced risk of COVID-19 mortality. Patients with obesity were at a higher risk of experiencing severe symptoms of COVID-19 rather than mortality. Patients with cerebrovascular disease, chronic liver disease, chronic renal disease, or cancer were more likely to become severe COVID-19 cases and had a greater probability of mortality.

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8
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research approaches employed by Singh et al. and Geng et al.?

A

Geng et al weaknesses:

All of them were done in china, and could not study them outside of china.

Singh et al. weakness:
studies done in Asia and does not have the variability factor of studying other regions in the world.

Both studies strength:

A systematic review is a meta-analysis because it takes quantitative studies and makes the raw data available for public use. Furthermore, the idea will be that any study weaknesses will be canceled of the analyzing from other people using the data. Systematic reviews are useful because they limit the time of looking at the data and make it very time efficient for people to read.

Longitudinal analysis or data over time, is most effective if running different surveys for different points in time.

as cross-sectional surveys can capture a snippet of a specific phenomenon for a limited period of time.

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9
Q

Why are unintentional injuries receiving more attention in global health than they used to?

A

In 2016, about 4.6 million people died of injuries worldwide. This was more than 8 percent of total deaths. In addition, these injuries are major causes of disability, with many people being disabled by injuries, even if they do not die from them. Moreover, the rate of deaths from injuries is substantially higher in low- and middle-income countries than in high-income countries.

In addition, it is more than twice as many as the number of people who died that year of lung cancer and about four times the number who died from HIV/AIDS. Injuries also represent about 11 percent of total DALYs globally and addressing them is an important SDG goal

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10
Q

In terms of their health impacts, what is the difference between natural and manmade disasters and CHEs? Why is it easier to prepare for the health impacts of disasters than those of CHEs?

A

Overall, CHEs are associated with considerably larger health impacts than natural disasters. In addition, they may have an acute phase when large numbers of people flee, and they generally go on for long periods of time.

First, a natural disaster has warning signs, such as a hurricane, so people are better prepared. Additionally, resources are saved by not creating a program to address a particular natural disaster. For example, in Chicago, there will not be a tsunami agency because there are no tsunamis in Chicago. Therefore, the resources will be saved because some countries do not have natural disasters.

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11
Q

What are the major health problems in refugee situations?

A

Domestic violence increases, sexually transmitted infections and mental health problems increase—a function of the length of time. Moreover, a refugee being persecuted is given more sympathy and access to other countries than those displaced from their homes because of a natural disaster or a chemical spill—Vitamin A deficiency. Refugees may face a wide variety of acute or chronic health issues. Examples include infectious diseases such as tuberculosis or intestinal parasites, chronic illnesses such as diabetes or hypertension, and mental health issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder or depression.

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12
Q

Why is community engagement so important in controlling disease outbreaks and responding to natural and manmade disasters? How can a health promotion strategy help in this respect?

A

If health community experts engage with the community, they have better outcomes when there is a disaster because they are better prepared.
Corbin also talks about the changing behaviors of citizens of people; the public can have insecurity in the system to protect them. Thus, education is essential to avoid an infodemic in which people receive misinformation, such as during Covid-19.

If health community experts engage with the community, they have better outcomes when there is a disaster because they are better prepared. The COVID-19 pandemic has reconfirmed the need to elevate community engagement and health literacy to build equity, trust and sustained action in future health promotion preparedness strategies. Community-based organizations can adapt scientific and government messages and recommendations to achieve greater participation of populations and improve the effectiveness of public health and social measures.

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13
Q

What can a case-study approach contribute to global health research? What are its limitations?

A

A case study approach has more information to see what works for communities to be resilient and involve people at all stages in preparation.

There is a clear need for community-led approaches. Thus, there is an aim to have the “Best Practices” in which people in global health take what has worked and get rid of what has not when working on a new global health problem. However, one criticism is that depending on the number of cases; there could be a lack of contextual factors as no consensus on a solution will work in every community.

Lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population. Researchers’ own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias). Difficult to replicate. Time-consuming and expensive

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14
Q

Why is cooperation critical to improving global health?

A

One of the first reasons to cooperate is to improve health across borders and creates consensus around and advocate on behalf of different health causes. Second, the need to share knowledge and to set global standards for health activities are additional reasons for cooperation as knowledge can help treat diseases globally. third, in many ways, could be a global public good and not a zero-sum game that helps all of us make sure that it’s not threatened. Next, there is the enlightened self-interest to cooperate globally because people migrate, and thus we are reducing migration. Additionally, there is a moral argument that people migrating are human beings, and luck is involved in where people are born, so we have a moral responsibility to help them.

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15
Q

What/who are the key actors in the global health field? What/who sets the global health agenda?

A

agencies of the UN -> at the top, we have the World Health Organization (WHO), founded in 1948 headquarters in Switzerland Geneva. Then, there is the United Nations (UN) located in midtown New York, and the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) is right across the UN headquarters.

The organizations most involved in such discussions will generally be WHO, UNICEF, and the World Bank. Selected bilateral development agencies will also participate, such as USAID, the Department for International Development of the United Kingdom, and the Norwegian Development Agency. Australia plays a unique role in parts of Asia in the Pacific.

The Global Fund has been increasingly involved in policy discussions as its portfolio has grown, as has UNAIDS as HIV/AIDS has become more important. The Gates Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, and selected NGOs might also participate in setting the agenda. Some other NGOs, such as MSF, may not be present, but through advocacy, they do bring their interests to the policy-setting group.

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16
Q

How has global health governance evolved since the end of the Cold War?

A

Global health governance has evolved since the cold war because Dr. Jeffery Sachs who gained fame during the cold war. When cold war ended big debate about how development should proceed. School of thought that said it should be a gradual process into a new system, other people said that no which was called shock therapy. Shock therapy won applied in Poland and Russia, in russia it was a disaster, mean from state to market really fast. Jeffrey Sachs proponent of shock therapy.

17
Q

What is philanthrocapitalism?

A

refers both to infusing philanthropy with the principles and practices of for-profit enterprise and to demonstrating capitalism’s benevolent potential through innovations

Philanthrocapitalism involves individuals who have become massively wealthy in capitalist systems applying the very same skills and techniques that they used to create their
wealth to the project of giving their fortunes away.

18
Q

What have been the funding priorities and impact of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) in the area of global health? Is the BMGF a good thing or a bad thing for global health? What about the role of private foundations in general? What have been the major differences between the BMGF and the Rockefeller Foundation? In what ways have they been similar?

A

The priorities of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have mostly been vertical interventions, specifically the role of health and technology. I would say its a bad thing because not addressing the social determinants or horizontal solutions.

In a private organization, the foundation’s trustees, such as Bill gates, for example, decide on what to spend the money vs. the government, in which the taxpayers would theoretically vote for politicians that would reflect their decisions on how to spend the money. Additionally, most private foundations focus on health because it’s in their best interests to maintain the workers’ health.

One reason for creating private foundations such as the Gates Foundation or the Rockefeller foundation is to build a self-image. Since both foundations were created at a time when the founders were being criticized for union-busting and monopolistic practices. Another reason for making these foundations is to have taxation exempts. Since from looking at the Gates foundation, ⅓ of the money spent on the foundation could have been allocated to the government.

No money is given to these lower-income countries, where most benefits go to the top. Thus, people who are professionals in lower-income countries leave because there is no financial incentive to stay. However, the Rockefeller Foundation strengthened the public sector through some in contrast to the Gates Foundation.

19
Q

What is neoliberalism? How did it make the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic worse and the response to it less effective? What does it mean to say that COVID-19 has
become a global biomarker of neoliberalism?

A

A political approach that favors free-market capitalism, deregulation, and reduction in government spending. What kind of interest predominated, the response in which mandates were not followed the interests of the economy. Predominance of economic interests over public interests. the virus found weaknesses in a market-integrated and market-transformed global body politic that it has used to viral advantage

20
Q

In what ways and why did global health institutions fall short in their response to the
COVID-19 pandemic?

A

the WHO and associated global health security apparatus responded
to COVID within the parameters of a market friendly and market disciplined approach that have
compromised coordination at every step.

21
Q

What evidence do De Soysa and Vadlamannati produce regarding the relationship between free-market capitalism and equitable access to healthcare?

A

One of the few articles that is pro-neoliberalism. Moreover, the authors use the economic freedom index, an institution located in Canada that is libertarian and conservative. Furthermore, they state that there needs to be minimal government to have a functioning economy. However, there still needs to be a political system to enforce laws. For example, if someone breaks into your house, you can call the police because you have ownership. The article notes that a higher score for a country means they have more economic freedom and less government involvement.

22
Q

How important are scientific and technological advances in improving global health? What new products are necessary? What prevents their development, and how can the barriers be lowered?

A

Technological advances are critical to health, the productsare diagnostics, drugs, vaccines, and medical devices that could most effectively and efficiently address the critical health problems of low- and middle-income countries .

Constrains: most research and development is in the for-profit sector. Thus, there is not a lot of focus on low and middle-income countries’ diseases because the companies believe they would not get sufficient financial returns for their investments and do not research the diseases of lower-income countries.

Vaccine markets have various constraints to entry: First, the upstream investment in developing the idea is very high. Then, the costs itself to develop the vaccine are high. Third, there is a lot of government regulation. Fourth, a small number of firms have a production capacity. Lastly, there are very different standards for high and low-income countries that a company must adhere to once they develop the vaccine.

There are two types of ways to enhance new product development through push and pull mechanisms.
Push mechanisms could include the following:
Direct financing: government financing or carrying out research activities needed to develop a product.
Performing or facilitating clinical trials: This could include government measures to make it easier to carry out clinical trials for the product and to help with the ethical issues involved in such trials.

pull mechanisms:
Increasing the uptake of existing vaccines: Using public funds to increase the use of vaccines that have not been taken up sufficiently.
Prizes: Offering monetary rewards to those firms that develop desired products.
Transferable patents: In exchange for the development of the desired product, providing the manufacturer with the right to extend a patent on another one of its products or patents in markets in high-income countries.

A mechanism already in use for vaccines and for AIDS drugs is tiered pricing. This is an arrangement in which products are sold at different prices in different markets, with the principle being that the price of sales in high-income country markets will help defray the cost of the products in low- and middle-income country markets.

23
Q

How can health technologies make disparities/inequities worse? Why is improving health equity a political challenge and not a technical one? Why is the work to develop technological solutions that can improve access to and the quality of health care not the same as the mission to improve health equity?

A

Yet at other times, technology becomesa dangerous trap, as recently demonstrated by the roleplayed by social media in the November 2019 Bolivian coup,dubbed by some as‘Plan Condor 2.0

Human environmental costs are not equally distributed. The cultural and social implications enforce the dominance of the Global North or West.

Lastly, there is a difference between healthcare equity barriers to access technology and true health equity barriers, which is the absence of any societal or structural barriers to health. Thus, technology is organized by the people in power and is more of a political challenge than a technological one.

24
Q

What are the most important emerging technologies and trends relevant to global health, according to the WHO, and how did it identify them?

A

The professionals in any field in a low-income country will usually be Elites. Moreover, professionals in low-income countries are typically rich people who do not have much perspective about their people. Thus, there could be a social class bias from the panel of experts assembled since they are shielded from the information about the real problems that their country faces.

Then, the experts highlighted the need to address misinformation, use artificial intelligence, pull mechanisms for drug pricing, and some interesting solutions to the genetic engineering of bacteria, vaccine distribution. Lastly, 7 of the 15 policy topics were related to some sort of policy change, while the other half were related to technological advancement or new inventions.

25
Q

What good things has the IFFIm accomplished, but what are the problems with it? What are the important (geo)economic and (geo)political consequences of the
financialization of global health and development have? What alternatives are there?

A

Help to vaccine millions of people. Bilateral assistance (ODA official development assistance) analyzed that it will be 15-20 years bonds for GAVI (the Vaccine Alliance), and governments committed to pay them off, so aid is more consistent with having more quick solutions to health through the IFFIm.

In high-income countries or the Global North. Mainly in London, Lexunmberg, and Japan. Thus, the geopolitical and economic consequences only reinforce the Global North and South divide.

One of the possible options is to eliminate the IFFIm entirely and just have the ten donor governments give the bonds to the needing countries themselves without a middleman. Thus, the money will not get the peel-off by the financial industry.
Another option is to focus on the social determinants of health and give more funding to horizontal health since the governments will address the problems without involving outside organizations, not ignoring the geopolitical and economic consequences.

26
Q

What is the vaccine divide, and what causes it? What role has Bill Gates played in
sustaining it?

A

Pharmaceutical companies donated vaccines and gave them away to governments to distribute. However, the other alternative is the people’s vaccine, in which patents for the Covid-19 vaccine are released for the countries to make generic versions and save lives. Lastly, the head of the WHO called for the people’s vaccine solution, while Bill Gates advocated for protecting the pharmaceutical industry’s intellectual property rights or patent rights.

27
Q

What connection is there between good ethical and human rights practices and health outcomes? If we are going to care about human rights, what are the implications for global health research and practice?

A

International conventions and treaties recognize access to health services and health information as human rights. Yet, in many countries, there are remarkable gaps in access to health services. The poor and the disenfranchised suffer from these gaps the most. Finally, it is important to ensure that health investments are made in fair ways, meaning global health research should be equitable.

28
Q

Are we (as individuals, organizations, or countries) morally obligated to care about and take action to improve others’ health?

A

Yes, Jensen/Kelly/Avendado health equity frontiers article.
there should be a focus on disparities because they are avoidable and not fair. Since there is a fundamental idea of people not faulting disadvantages they face because they cannot control where they were born.

29
Q

Who or what enforces ethics in health research?

A

The Research Ethics Review Committee (ERC) ensures that WHO only supports research of the highest ethical standards

30
Q

What limits on human rights might be acceptable?

A

Yet, there are exceptional circumstances in which someone’s rights may be temporarily suspended. For instance, in order to protect the interest of the public during an influenza epidemic or an outbreak of an emerging or re-emerging infectious disease such as the Ebola virus, a government might suspend for a certain time the right of people to leave their homes, to go to work, to travel, or to participate in mass gatherings, such as sporting events.

31
Q

The Belmont Report set up a framework for evaluating the ethics of human subjects research protocols that requires them to satisfy which 6 conditions?

A

(1) social value, (2) scientific validity, (3) fair subject selection, (4) acceptable risk/benefit ratio, (5) informed consent, and (6) respect for enrolled subjects.

32
Q

What does the right to health include? What freedoms and entitlements does it contain? What is the link between it and other human rights? What 3 types of obligations do states have under the right to health?

A

The freedoms include the right to control one’s health and body, including sexual and reproductive freedom, and the right to be free from interference, such as the right to be free from torture, non-consensual medical treatment and experimentation.

33
Q

What are intersectoral approaches to health, and why does Skolnik that they are so
necessary?

A

Adding the chapter acknowledges the arguments for horizontal interventions. The first part of the chapter is a helpful review of the social determinants of health. Looks at the risk factors and look at the behavioral and environmental factors.
Some factors within the health realm deal with actors not in the health sector. Not focus only on the health department but looks at behavioral and risk factors that go beyond the health sector.

34
Q

In what ways should the global health “equity agenda” change in light of what we have learned from the COVID-19 pandemic?

A

The first one is the social determinants of health, referring to the WHO framework, which needs epidemiological analysis.

The second frontier is the unequal effects of public measures, people living in a ranch vs. living in a small apartment in which lockdowns and other mitigations will not have the same effects for people living in the worst conditions.

The third frontier is the disproportionate impact of HSS (health strengthening services) on health groups. The weakness in health systems does not affect everyone equally, and there are gaps not just in isolation.

The fourth frontier is the inequities within the system that often result from structural violence, which makes it impossible to get health, such as nutrition. For example, people in low-income communities often have to ride many buses just to access food security.

The fifth or final frontier is the politics of attention and neglect. The negative side of the pandemic was that attention was only given to Covid-19, and other crises were ignored. Furthermore, people saw the inequities of the global healthcare system at the time of the pandemic, but after the emergency had passed, they just forgot. Another problem from politics was framing global health as a crisis all the time, not looking at the political asocial, and economic context. If framing every problem as a crisis, it will be more difficult to have valid attention. Instead, focused on horizontal interventions, decolonization of health, and more solutions besides medical medicine.

35
Q

How has the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted TB care and service delivery but also given us lessons that can be leveraged to strengthen the global response to TB?

A

Stigma reduction control strategies, some of the ways used for Covid-19, could also be helpful for TB. Because there were overlapping symptoms between TB and Covid-19, there was an infodemic in which people treated TB as a symptom of Covid-19.
Another important aspect of a strategy is community engagement. On a personal level seeking early care for TB symptoms is important, and personal practices such as wearing face masks have been destigmatized from the pandemic.
The screening for the infectious disease was discontinued, which set back the treatment for TB, but rapid innovation for Covid-19 could also be used for a community screening of other diseases.
Finally, the person-centric system uses pointed care, and technological advancements, in which researchers are moving from vertical approaches such as vaccines.

Socioeconomic status and lack of political wealth are strong predictors of disease, but if there is a focus on social determinants of health to fight Covid-19, it can also be used to fight TB. A redefined approach to TB, reduced burden, strengthening of social systems, and public health response are not single interventions but societal responses.

36
Q

What is the argument for seeing the decolonization of global health as necessary, and what would the process entail?

A

The following three areas are recommended to be targeted: training research education from high-income countries go to low and middle countries. richer countries should stop subsiding commodities of their agricultural system since most of the economies of lower-income countries depend mainly on agriculture.

how many doctors are taken away by the U.S. and other high-income countries from low-income countries. not take away their doctors.