socialist: thinkers

Question 1

Anthony Giddens

Answer 1

• opposed state intervention as a solution to inequalities as it was inefficient, accepting the free market instead
• the state should be limited to investing in education and infrastructure only
• free market also encouraged personal responsibility
• equality limited to equality of opportunity
• this will also ensure the best can be gained out of the free market
• the success or failure of one generation should not affect the possibilities of their descendants
• applies to – common humanity, equality
• third way
• Giddens wrote ‘The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy’ (1998) in which he outlined the ‘third way’ political approach
• the ‘third way’ had an influence on the policy of PM Tony Blair’s New Labour (1997-2010) government and the Bill Clinton administration in the United States (1993-2001)

Question 2

rejection of state intervention (Giddens)

Answer 2

• Giddens’ ‘third way’ approach rejects state intervention in the economy and instead accepts the free market as it is the most efficient, emphasising equal opportunities for people over equality and placing importance on responsibility and community over class conflict
• the ‘third way’ approach outlined that the state’s role should be to invest in infrastructure and education rather than directly intervene in the economy

Question 3

social democracy (Giddens)

Answer 3

• Giddens believed that social democracy should be modernised because of key developments in society by the end of the 20th century including globalisation and the rise of the knowledge economy
• Giddens argued for social investment by the state where the state invests in infrastructure to provide employment opportunities, and in return, people had a responsibility to take the jobs made available rather than live on welfare benefits

Question 4

human nature (Giddens)

Answer 4

• focus on community rather than class conflict
• importance of community and social responsibility
• declining importance of hierarchy and class conflict
• community is important to offset the negatives of the free market and promote social cohesion, shared values and individual and social responsibility

Question 5

state (Giddens)

Answer 5

• rejection of state intervention
• top down state intervention is inefficient and ineffective
• social investment in infrastructure and education, not economical and social engineering
• government action to control widening inequalities of outcome
• ‘social investment’ state – a contract between the people and the government – the state provide infrastructure of society if the people take advantage of what is on offer, do not become lazy and give back so that the state benefits from economic growth generated by the free market

Question 6

society (Giddens)

Answer 6

• emphasis on equality of opportunity over complete equality
• everyone needs an equal opportunity to better themselves through their ability and effort
• social democracy had to be modernised due to the impact of globalisation

Question 7

economy (Giddens)

Answer 7

• acceptance of the free market economy
• government intervention to control widening inequalities of outcome
• rejected extensive state welfare programmes as they create a dependency culture
• excessive taxation discourages investment and entrepreneurial effort needed to sustain a competitive economy

Question 8

Anthony Crosland

Answer 8

• opposed the idea that nationalisation of the economy was the best way to achieve socialism
• capitalism should be tolerated so long as it is efficient and non-exploitative. The state should ensure this is the case (state managed capitalism)
• opposed the idea that class was central to society as this was becoming outdated and the working classes were becoming better off
• socialism is a set of principles and not a strict attachment to set of institutions
• applies to – equality
• third way

Question 9

capitalism benefiting society (Crosland)

Answer 9

• Crosland wrote ‘The Future of Socialism’ (1956) where he argued that capitalism had changed, and so Marx’s argument that capitalism would cause class conflict and a revolution was no longer useful in the 20th century
• Crosland noted how capitalism had developed and benefited society in several ways: the elite class of business decision makers had changed to become specialist managers who cared about the happiness of their employees; Crosland argued that capitalism had improved living standards for all people in society, including the working class, rather than collapse as Marxism predicted

Question 10

state managed society (Crosland)

Answer 10

• Crosland believed that the government in a democratic society could use state powers to regulate capitalism and ensure social equality and justice
• for Crosland, equality in society could be best achieved through economic growth which would enable a socialist government to have more money for social spending and welfare to increase equality in society
• Crosland believed that a mixed economy of mainly private ownership with less public ownership of industry would cause sustained economic growth

Question 11

reform of the education system (Crosland)

Answer 11

• Crosland believed in reforming the UK’s education system, which was key to his revisionist socialism
• Crosland wanted to improve the state secondary education system so children from all backgrounds could have the same quality of education

Question 12

human nature (Crosland)

Answer 12

• social equality
• social justice
• a communitarian society
• talents and abilities are due to nature or nurture, not individual responsibility, therefore people should not be rewarded according to these
• democratic equality – socialism has to move beyond equality of opportunity

Question 13

state (Crosland)

Answer 13

• modern capitalism lacked the inherent contradictions described by Marx and lacked the internal tensions to drive social change
• capitalism should instead be managed to deliver greater social equality and social justice
• high levels of government spending is required on welfare services and the redistribution of wealth

Question 14

society (Crosland)

Answer 14

• development of comprehensive secondary education and the expansion of higher education
• children of all backgrounds and abilities should be able to share similar education experiences

Question 15

economy (Crosland)

Answer 15

• egalitarian distribution of rewards, status and privileges, with no class barriers
• high levels of government spending on welfare services and the redistribution of wealth
• Keynesian demand – management of a mixed economy with some nationalised industries in a system based on private ownership
• economic expansion would provide the government with the funds for welfare and social spending to improve life for those at the bottom of society

Question 16

Rosa Luxemburg

Answer 16

• as capitalism is an economic exploitation, evolutionary socialism is not possible, rather revolution is needed
• the working classes need to struggle together in order to create the class consciousness necessary to enact revolution
• gradual change would only serve to dilute the aims of socialist parties
• applies to – collectivism, common humanity, equality, social class, workers’ control
• revolutionary socialism

Question 17

social reform or revolution (Luxemburg)

Answer 17

• Rosa Luxemburg did not believe the creation of socialism gradually (evolutionary socialism) and through reforms (revisionism) was possible from within a capitalist system which exploits the working class
• Rosa Luxemburg argued in ‘Social Reform or Revolution’ (1899) that a revolution by the working class (proletariat) was key to overthrowing capitalism
• Luxemburg stated that evolutionary socialism or revisionism would fail to bring about socialism because it would not remove the capitalist system fully from society
• Luxemburg believed that evolutionary socialism or revisionism would not remove the exploitation of workers brought about by capitalism

Question 18

struggle by the proletariat (Luxemburg)

Answer 18

• Luxemburg believed that the struggle to reform the capitalist system by the working class would create a class consciousness for workers.
• Luxemburg argued that workers having class consciousness is important because it would cause the overthrow of capitalism
• Luxemburg outlined in ‘Mass Strike, Party and Trade Unions’ (1906) that class consciousness would naturally develop within workers themselves
• Luxemburg believed that the working class would protest against the state through strikes which would lead to a final mass strike that would establish socialism

Question 19

human nature (Luxemburg)

Answer 19

• society is naturally sociable
• fraternity

Question 20

society (Luxemburg)

Answer 20

• a capitalist state promotes exploitation and is at odds with humanity’s natural, fraternal instincts
• did not believe that revolution would lead to a dictatorship of the proletariat but the construction of a new democracy underpinned by common ownership, open debate and elections

Question 21

state (Luxemburg)

Answer 21

• socialism cannot be created gradually within a capitalist society through reforms – the proletariat must stage a revolutionary conquest of political power
• class consciousness would develop naturally from within the workers themselves
• unlike Lenin, she did not believe that a small disciplined party was needed to lead the workers in their revolution

Question 22

economy (Luxemburg)

Answer 22

• capitalism leaves the system of economic exploitation intact
• workers need to be able to determine their wages and resolve the contradiction between social production and private appropriation of wealth
• the contradictions of capitalism make its collapse inevitable
• capitalism is flawed because it cannot absorb all the surplus value that is generated (it is wasteful)
• capitalism will run out of territories to exploit

Question 23

Beatrice Webb

Answer 23

• an expanding state will bring about socialism
• socialism is achievable through entirely peaceful means, within a democratic system, simply by passing reforms through democratic institutions (‘inevitability of gradualness’)
• reasoned arguments and thorough research can be used to demonstrate the superiority of socialism over capitalism
• applies to – collectivism, common humanity, equality, social class, workers’ control
• evolutionary socialism

Question 24

the inevitability of gradualness (Webb)

Answer 24

• ‘the inevitability of gradualness’ outlines how socialism can be established peacefully through parliamentary law-making and democratic reforms
• ‘the inevitability of gradualness’ is the idea that democratic politics can bring about policies which look after the working class
• Webb stated that the move towards socialism could come about faster in a democratic system by presenting logical arguments and research which show socialism’s benefits over capitalism

Question 25

the expansion of the state (Webb)

Answer 25

• Webb believed that a growth of state power was important to bring about socialism peacefully
• Webb believed that expanding the power of the state would bring about socialism because the government and authorities would increasingly provide important services and amenities to the public, and make decisions which bring about socialism
• Webb said that the state would need an elite of highly trained specialists and administrators to organise society so that socialism could be brought about by the state.
• Webb predicted that as more parts of society would require regulation and planning over time, state intervention would increase
• this idea opposed Marx and Engels’ belief that socialism could be established by overthrowing the state

Question 26

human nature (Webb)

Answer 26

• believed the average voter was limited, selfish and uninformed
• rejected direct democracy
• rejected the ‘self-interested nature’ of workers’ control
• representative democracy was preferable as this left the hard work to the skilled governing class

Question 27

state (Webb)

Answer 27

• the new mass age of democratic political states would lead inevitably to polices to secure the interests of the working class
• originally opposed the idea of a working-class party, focusing on spreading evolutionary socialist ideas among leading liberals and conservatives
• expansion of the state critical to deliver socials
• gradual growth of state power
• collectivism would bring in a new socialist age
• municipal and state intervention would increase
• paternalism and philanthropy are not sustainable solutions to the problems of poverty and inequality

Question 28

society (Webb)

Answer 28

• rejected the Marxist theory that class struggle was necessary
• the state’s ability to deliver socialism depended heavily on specialists to organise society and the economy

Question 29

economy (Webb)

Answer 29

• increase in state intervention
• centralised action to deal with poverty and unemployment

Question 30

Marx and Engels

Answer 30

• all of history is a history of class conflict. Conflict itself is driven primarily by differences between classes and all changes occur due to such conflict
• human nature is social. This can best be realised under a communist system, where there is common ownership of the means of production and equality
• before a revolution can occur, class consciousness is required. This means that workers need to become aware of themselves as a single class with the same interests
• strands they apply to - collectivism, common humanity, equality, social class, workers’ control
• revolutionary socialists

Question 31

centrality of social class (Marx and Engels)

Answer 31

• Marx and Engels’ viewed social class as essential to socialism
• social class is key to three ideas of Marx and Engels’ form of socialism, which is named Marxism
• the ideas are historical materialism, dialectical change and class consciousness

Question 32

historical materialism (Marx and Engels)

Answer 32

• historical materialism is the idea that the economic system in a society can have an influence on all aspects of society
• historical materialism states that the development of a society can be explained by economic and class factors

Question 33

dialectical change (Marx and Engels)

Answer 33

• dialectical change is the idea that development results from a conflict between two forces that oppose one another
• Marx and Engels argued that humans pass through a number of stages of development, with a class structure existing at each stage
• Marx and Engels outlined that at each stage there is a class conflict which brings about historical change and a new stage of development, which will only end when a communist society is created that will not have classes or class conflict

Question 34

class consciousness (Marx and Engels)

Answer 34

• revolutionary class consciousness is the self-understanding the oppressed in society have of their own social class and their class interests.
• Marx and Engels argued that class consciousness is needed for a socialist revolution to take place because it means that individuals become aware of the interests of their social class and determined to pursue them.
• Marx and Engels argued that a revolution will happen as class conflict intensifies between the exploited workers and the ruling class.

Question 35

humans as social beings (Marx and Engels)

Answer 35

• Marx and Engels believe humans are social beings whose human nature is determined by social interactions with others.
• Marx and Engels argue that humans are active beings who are able to lead satisfying lives where the conditions for free creative production exist
• the conditions for this only exist in a communist society

Question 36

free from capitalism (Marx and Engels)

Answer 36

• for Marx and Engels, a communist society that is free from the constraints of capitalism will allow individuals to develop through taking part in many activities rather than one job, and people will have more time for leisure because production processes will benefit everyone rather than be used for profit
• Marx and Engels state that each individual society will reach their potential in a communist society by working in cooperation with one another and creatively

Question 37

human nature (Marx and Engels)

Answer 37

• humans are essentially social beings
• their behaviour and potential are influenced more by nurture than by nature
• humans are sociable, rational, and cooperative
• they are capable of leading satisfying lives based on fulfilling work where the conditions for free creative production exist
• human nature is socially determined and can only be expressed fully in a communist society. Humans cannot fully express themselves or reach their full potential in a capitalist society
• under capitalism workers are alienated but under communism they are freed to realise their true potential

Question 38

society (Marx and Engels)

Answer 38

• society is dominated by class conflict
• class consciousness is needed for the oppressed to overthrow their oppressors
• society must be completely uprooted and overhauled
• the economic system influences all other aspects of society

Question 39

state (Marx and Engels)

Answer 39

• the state is an instrument of class oppression
• the only way to overthrow this oppressive state is through revolution – class conflict (dialectical change)
• having said this the state can organise all means of production through collectivism but this would be owned by the workers

Question 40

economy (Marx and Engels)

Answer 40

• the state should control the economy through collectivism, but workers should have full democratic control over their workplaces
• capitalism should be replaced with a centrally planned economy based on common ownership of the means of production