conservatism: core ideas and principles

Question 1

key themes of conservatism

Answer 1

• pragmatism
• tradition
• organic society
• human imperfection
• paternalism (hierarchy and authority)
• libertarianism

Question 2

conservativism is merely the politics of pragmatism

Answer 2

• the father of conservativism, Burke, made his attack on the French revolution an attack on ‘abstract philosophy’ claiming it ignored human imperfection
• traditional conservatives have consistently advocated an ‘empirical approach to politics, one based on ‘what is’, not ‘what should be’’
• traditional conservatism prides itself on ‘flexibility’, this has helped conservatism endure several centuries of dramatic change
• Oakeshott therefore argued that conservatism is a short term ‘getting by’ approach to politics: unlike liberalism and socialism, it has no long-term objectives concerning society and the economy
• conservative pragmatism is shown by the different policies by the different policies adopted by various conservatives at different times. Peel, for example, supported laissez-faire capitalism, whilst Macmillan backed a more Keynesian approach

Question 3

conservativism is not merely the politics of pragmatism

Answer 3

• socialists see conservatism as ‘ruling class ideology’, a changing set of biased policies, reflecting the evolving tactics of elites determined to preserve their privilege
• Oakeshott described traditional conservativism as psychology rather than an ideology’, drawing upon humanity’s ‘instinctive love of the familiar’, conservatives may therefore reject ‘pragmatic’ change if it conflicts with their instincts and emotions
• traditional conservativism, far from being philosophically neutral, is based on philosophically contentious assertions (e.g., slow change is preferable to radical change) that ‘vision’ and ‘principle’ are inferior to ‘tradition’ and ‘evidence’
• traditional conservativism does not reject revolution merely as a method of change; it does so to protect a society based on certain principles, such as hierarchy, inequality, and private property
• new right conservativism draws upon the neo liberal/libertarian doctrines of philosophers like Hayek and Nozick, while new right politicians, such as Thatcher proclaimed themselves ‘conviction politicians’

Question 4

conservativism is a ruling class ideology

Answer 4

• conservative paternalism is merely an attempt to make inequality and elitism palatable to the majority
• the stress on tradition and piecemeal change conspires to prevent radical change, which inherently threatens ruling class ideology
• those making such claims cited Burke – the ‘father of conservativism’ - who attacked the egalitarianism of the French Revolution while defending aristocratic rule
• since Burke, conservatives have always defended property, privilege, and inequality
• it was a claim regularly made by both fundamentalist socialists such as Webb and revisionist socialists like Crosland

Question 5

conservativism is not a ruling class ideology

Answer 5

• the prime purpose of the conservative state – the maintenance of order – is one with appeal to all sections of society
• the conservative wish to avoid revolution is altruistic, during periods of revolutionary upheaval it is often society’s most vulnerable members who suffer the most
• new right conservativism is meritocratic, not aristocratic, identifying with ambitious and talented individuals from all backgrounds
• traditional conservativism has frequently promoted the interests of the poor in order to ensure the maintenance of ‘one nation’
• conservativism’s love of habit, custom, and familiarity has echoes within all sections of society

Question 6

pragmatism

Answer 6

• to be pragmatic is to reject ideology and dogma - and instead accept that the best route to solving a problem is not necessarily what one’s own ideological belief says
• one-nation conservatism is a highly pragmatic way of governing
• new Right conservatism is much more ideological and requires a firm leadership to steer the government and the country into neo-liberalism
• pragmatism – taking action based on what is seen to work and basing ideas and suggestions on realism rather than idealism
• it is used in conservative thought- political action should be based on a good relationship between the governed and the governors, rather than on theories and ideologies. This can sometimes mean adopting the ideas and actions of opponents if these actions have proved successful
• Oakeshott – asserted that politics should not be an argument, but a conversation

Question 7

tradition

Answer 7

• conservatives believe that events in the past hold knowledge for people in the present
• tradition, paternalism and hierarchy are closely linked - the people in history who have ruled (who are often of a higher class/income than others) know what is best for the people they are ruling
• new right conservatism rejected lots of ideas of tradition, however
• Edmund Burke supported ideas of tradition - he wrote after the 1789 French Revolution about the dangers of rejecting the ideas of the past, because of human imperfection, we cannot just create a new society - we should listen to the lessons and teachings of the past and society should evolve organically to meet current needs - he argued that the tried and tested ways of the past should never be lightly abandoned
• tradition – lifestyle, culture, customs, etc that have been in use for a long time in a particular society and/or state
• used in conservative thought – preserving the status quo is a good way of maintaining order; in addition, if something has been in place for a long time it means that it has been successful and it is not necessary to fix things that are not broken

Question 8

revolutionary change and tradition

Answer 8

• conservatives believe that revolutionary change disrupts order and hierarchy and so is dangerous to law and order and private property
• society is constantly evolving, and revolution does not solve society’s problems
• society functions better and is safer if the change is gradual

Question 9

organic change and tradition

Answer 9

• organic change is the idea that social change should not be radical, or mechanistic (a liberal idea, where the interactions of rational individuals change the way society works)
• instead, society evolves through an organic process, and political processes and leaders emerge as a result of this organic process
• the society itself is more important than the individual parts within it
• organic change is gradual rather than revolutionary and is supported by conservatives who wish to preserve order in society

Question 10

human imperfection

Answer 10

• conservatives reject ideas from the enlightenment about trying to improve human nature, arguing that human nature cannot be perfected
• human imperfection goes against the liberal idea of human rationality, that humans are rational creatures that can become more fulfilled when given the freedom to make their own choices
• because humans are imperfect, they are unable to make good decisions for themselves
• humans are flawed in three ways: psychologically, morally, and intellectually
• human imperfection – the idea that people are not necessarily inherently good and are capable of making mistakes or having flawed reasoning
• used in conservative thought – people are driven by their base interests and not by reason. This self-interest means that they cannot be trusted to govern as they will just abuse power for their own gain
• Hobbes – the primary human desire is for power

Question 11

psychological imperfection

Answer 11

• humans are psychologically imperfect - our brains mean that we are not necessarily rational
• we behave in ways that are familiar and comforting, rather than things that may be better for us
• humans are attracted to safety, comfort and order, rather than radical ideas and change. So, order and hierarchy in society should be preserved
• institutions that protect order and hierarchy should be preserved

Question 12

moral imperfection

Answer 12

• humans have flawed characters and therefore cannot always act rationally or perfectly
• this leads to a conservative view of crime as being a result of a flawed moral characteristic, rather than inequalities in the world
• conservatives believe in behaviour regulation through the law (anti-permissiveness) as a result of moral imperfection

Question 13

intellectual imperfection

Answer 13

• human rationality is imperfect and unreliable, and humans are intellectually imperfect
• the world around us is more complicated than our intellects are able to comprehend
• this disagrees with the liberal view that humans can create a free society through their rationality
• instead, we are unable to fully understand the society around us, and to try and completely overhaul what already exists would not be successful

Question 14

state of nature (human imperfection)

Answer 14

• human desire power and material gratification, and are distrustful of others – it is our natural ‘state of nature’
• state of nature – describes society before the existence of the state, where individuals live without law – life would be a struggle for power, existence would be bleak

Question 15

organic society

Answer 15

• society develops as an organism, rather than as a man-made device, and is therefore constantly changing
• conservatives support gradual change, and believe that society will evolve to fit the needs of the present
• the idea of the organic state links to the conservative beliefs in authority, because those in authority are there because they are society’s natural leaders
• the idea of the organic state links to a cohesive society because it suggests state unity is more important than disagreements between the state’s individual parts
• organic society – the idea that society is something more than just the collection of individuals within it and that there are natural hierarchies in such a system
• used in conservative thought – the existence of an organic society means that there is a reality and interests belonging to this society that are greater than individual ones; the natural hierarchy within such as system means that there is a clear, superior ruling class
• Burke – society is a contract between present, past and future generations

Question 16

change to conserve

Answer 16

• change to conserve - links to ideas of organic change in society
• conservatives believe that it is important to adapt to changing circumstances in society, as long as these adaptations conserve the basic principles of social order, hierarchy and tradition
• for this reason, many conservatives favour gradual and evolutionary change rather than radical revolutionary change
• change to conserve preserves the status quo (how things are) whilst also ensuring the Conservative Party remains relevant to the electorate

Question 17

authority

Answer 17

• authority telling people in society what to do means that society functions better. Authority is linked to ideas of paternalism and hierarchy - there should be a social structure with people in charge of others, and those people act in the best interests of those they have authority over
• authority also has links to ideas of the social contract - by giving up some of our freedom we gain security through law and order

Question 18

different types of authority

Answer 18

• according to theorist Max Weber, there are three types of authority:
• charismatic authority - where authority comes from the personality and characteristics of the leader.
• rational-legal authority - where authority comes from the legal system and rationalism
• traditional authority - where authority comes from tradition and custom, and acceptance of the historical state of affairs
• some argued that conservatives favour ‘traditional’ authority as this reflects cultural customs and respects historical tradition
• traditional authority is more likely to preserve tradition in society, and traditional hierarchies

Question 19

hierarchy

Answer 19

• conservatives believe that political systems and structures that are hierarchical are the best political systems and structures
• these structures will be the fairest and most beneficial to the people inside them
• we are all born with different merits and abilities, and so some people are more suited to leadership and high status, and others are more suited to low-status positions and jobs
• revolutionary change and abandoning hierarchy is ignorant of this fact, according to conservatives
• new Right conservatism accepts that there are natural inequalities in society, however, New Right conservatives don’t necessarily want to preserve this order and hierarchy
• instead, inequalities lead to people to strive to work harder to improve their place in life

Question 20

paternalism

Answer 20

• paternalism believes that some members of society should lead others and it is these people who have obligations to those below them to look after their best interests
• paternalism – the idea that the state has authority over its citizens in order to support and protect them
• used in conservative thought – the ruling class is better equipped to understand what is best for the people and can best be trusted to rule in the interests of the people - Burke – the relationship between people and the state should be like that of a parent and a child
• conservatives believe in human imperfection, which justifies paternalism - humans may not always make the best choices for themselves, therefore it is acceptable to act on behalf of other people
• conservatives tend to support the ‘trustee’ model of representation in parliament, rather than the ‘delegate’
• traditional conservatism - takes a forceful and authoritarian approach to paternalism; traditional paternalism is the idea that the state knows best and therefore everyone has to do as the state says
• rejection by New Right - instead there was a focus on individualism, the individual had a responsibility to look after themselves and their family

Question 21

one nation conservativism and paternalism

Answer 21

• Benjamin Disraeli’s one nation conservatism had strong paternalist ideas
• this conservative ideology argued that there should be social classes, and the upper classes should look after the working classes
• the paternalism of one-nation conservatism has roots in the idea of noblesse oblige - the obligation of the aristocracy and upper classes to look after the working classes and less fortunate

Question 22

neo feudalism and paternalism

Answer 22

• Disraeli and Edmund Burke introduced the concept of ‘neo-feudalism’ which argued for class structures
• the working classes produced goods
• the middle classes earned money and so if they were in power could have conflicts of interest
• the upper classes should rule because they had the time and money to already, their ancestors had been in power so they had historical knowledge and were able to rule ‘dispassionately’ (without self-interest)

Question 23

empiricism

Answer 23

• empiricism opposes the idea that we can get knowledge from theoretical concepts, it supports the conservative belief in tradition, as it uses the past as a source of wisdom
• empiricism supports the concept of organic society as institutions and practices have evolved over time to best suit the needs of society - we can only have knowledge of things we have seen or experienced - therefore the impact of ideas like liberal rationality and socialism are unknowable

Question 24

anti permissiveness

Answer 24

• anti-permissiveness is not allowing people to make their own moral choices
• this opposes permissiveness, which is when these behaviours are allowed to take place
• in comparison, liberals accept that individuals have the right to determine their own private moral conduct, so long as they are not causing harm to others

Question 25

order and authority (state)

Answer 25

• conservativism sees it as having more of a disciplinary function
• the main goal of the conservative state is to provide order security and authority
• like Hobbes, conservatives believe that without order there could be no liberty, and there could be no order until the emergence of clear, undisputed laws backed by firm authority
• all this connects to the fundamental conservative belief that the state precedes society and that liberal notions of natural rights are fanciful
• Hobbes insisted that the feasibility of individual rights is entirely dependent upon law and order, which only the state can provide

Question 26

organic origins (state)

Answer 26

• although conservatives have a Hobbesian view of the state’s function, the link can be overdone
• as an early enlightenment thinker, Hobbes was heavily committed to government by consent and the notion of a state being rationally created by a contract between the government and the governed
• by contrast, conservatives are sceptical about states that arise momentously, from a formal rational discussion
• such states, conservatives argue, are likely to be normative, not empirical, based on ideals rather than reality and therefore likely to founder
• instead, conservatives prefer a state that emerges gradually, unpredictably and without fanfare – an organic and pragmatic response to humanity’s needs
• for this reason, conservatives are less likely to demand a codified constitution and are more tolerant of unwritten constitutions have evolved organically in response to changing circumstances

Question 27

a ruling class (state)

Answer 27

• the structure of the state, at least for traditional conservatives, also differs from that advocated by liberalism and socialism
• unlike supporters of progressive ideologies, conservatives have been much more comfortable with a state that is overly hierarchical, reflecting the elitist society they also endorse
• furthermore, the traditional conservative state is one that implicitly acknowledges the notion of a ruling class, whose power will often be aristocratic and hereditary rather than democratic
• traditional conservatives from Burke onwards, were therefore keen to signal the merits of a class that was born and trained to rule the state
• for this reason, the traditional conservative state would again show pragmatic and empirical characteristics, legislating whenever there was evidence to show new laws were necessary and governing so as to ensure order and social cohesion
• by such flexible means, the conservative state would avert social upheaval and revolution while maintaining traditional patterns of wealth and power in society
• a state can uphold liberty, seeking to maximise autonomy and free choice, mainly in the economy (libertarianism)

Question 28

the nation state (state)

Answer 28

• from the mid 19th century to the mid 20th century, conservatives tended to emphasise a state based on nationhood
• for all conservatives, the nation became a mega-community, one that enfolded all classes and therefore provided a ‘natural’ basis for the state
• for continental conservatives, such as those in Germany or Italy, there remains a powerful sense that the nation preceded the state, that the two are distinct, and that the latter is distinguishable from the former
• for British and American conservatives, however, nation and state are much more intertwined, with the state serving to define much of the nation itself – hence, the importance of constitutions, monarchs and presidents as expressions of British and American identity
• this would also explain why British conservatives have had a much greater attachment to the nation-state than their continental counterparts, and much less enthusiasm for European political union
• like American conservatives, British conservatives tend to see any diminution of the nation-state of the nation itself
• for new right conservatives, the attitude to the state appears paradoxical: to strengthen the national state by ‘rolling back its frontiers’
• for Nozick and Rand, this is easily explained: if nation state is burned by nationalised industries and welfare states, it is harder for it to focus on its ‘true’ function of order and security
• Rand observed ‘when the state becomes flabby, it also becomes feeble’

Question 29

Oakeshott and human nature

Answer 29

• Oakeshott stated conservativism was ‘more psychology than ideology’ claiming it articulated ‘an instinctive preference for what is known, an innate fear of the uncertain’
• unlike Hobbes, Oakeshott believed that life without law would be ‘not so much nasty, brutish and short… as noisy, foolish and flawed’
• he conceded human nature was ‘fragile and fallible’, yet it was also ‘benign and benevolent’ when framed by routine, familiarity and religious principles

Question 30

Nozick, Rand and human nature

Answer 30

• later conservative thinkers, notably those associated with the new right offered modifications to the conservative view of human nature
• Nozick and Rand were keen to highlight human nature’s yearning for individual freedom, and its capacity for enterprise and innovation
• new right and traditional thinkers agreed that even the most enterprising individuals were still ‘freedom-loving pack animals’ (Nozick’s words), who need the periodic restraint of formal authority and deeply rooted communities
• both Hobbes and the new right took the view that human nature must be contained in order to provide some peace and stability in human affairs

Question 31

Burke, Hobbes, and human nature

Answer 31

• both Burke and Hobbes exhibited scepticism in their view of human nature
• they both ridiculed any idea that human nature was saintly or potentially flawless, yet their definitions of human perfections were distinct
• Burke did not think that human beings were as brutally selfish as Hobbes alleged: fallible but not terrible
• Burke thought that human beings were capable of kindness and altruism as long as their actions were rooted in history, tradition and the teachings of the Christian church
• Burke did not share Hobbes’ view that human nature was ruthlessly individualistic, he argued that human nature was naturally communal, with individuals gaining comfort and support from the small communities around them

Question 32

Burke and human nature

Answer 32

• Burke has a stronger claim than Hobbes to be the real ‘father of conservativism’
• Burke’s criticism of the French revolution was critical of both the events in France and the thrust of Enlightenment thinking – including the view of human nature that inspired it
• Burke rejected the idea that human nature was guided mainly by reason and dismissed any notion that mankind could plan the near perfect society
• Burke highlighted the ‘chasm between our desire and our achievement’ and this stressed custom, habit and experience as signposts for how we should behave

Question 33

Hobbes and human nature

Answer 33

• Hobbes view of life in the ‘state of nature’ was sharply different to Locke
• he regarded human nature as ruthlessly selfish, calculating and competitive
• Hobbes argued that without the restraints of formal authority, relations between human beings would be marked by ‘envy, hatred and war’ leading to life was ‘nasty, brutish and short’
• Hobbes is not quintessentially conservative as he went on to argue that cold rationality underpinned human nature, and this would lead to a formal state – this places him somewhere closer to liberalism in regards to human nature

Question 34

hierarchy (society)

Answer 34

• while any liberal society would stress ‘foundational’ equality of the notion than all individuals are born equal and are of equal worth, conservatives see society in a much less egalitarian way
• for conservatives, the imperfections of humanity lead seamlessly to inequalities within human nature
• this in turn leads to an unequal society, where ‘the wiser, stronger and more opulent’ (Burke) establish a hierarchy of power and privilege
• conservatives are keen to stress that with this power comes responsibility with the powerful having a natural responsibility, towards the less powerful (paternalism)

Question 35

property (society)

Answer 35

• crucial to the conservative view of society, and the basis of the ‘little platoons’ or mini societies lauded by Burke, is a respect for property
• this is not exclusive to conservativism (it’s one of the natural rights in liberalism)
• the conservative view of property is closely tied to its support for tradition and continuity
• rather than being something acquired by autonomous individuals, property is something inherited by one generation from another, thus providing stability
• inherited and bequeathed property is seen as a tangible expression of Burke’s belief that the ideal society is a ‘partnership between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are yet to be born’
• practical maintenance of property could be seen as a metaphor for conservativism’s belief that the ongoing maintenance of society - ‘change to conserve’
• those with property have a ‘stake’ in society and should have concern for those less fortunate, thus property acts as an incentive for owners to exercise ‘duty of care’ (paternalism) towards others
• new right conservatives are even more zealous about property, wishing not just to preserve but to extend property ownership throughout society, thus creating a ‘property-owning democracy’
• new right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick believed those who owned property are generally better placed to resist state-led incursions upon their liberty and will be emboldened to justify the sort of unequal society conservatives defend
• the new right’s overall analysis of society is somewhat distinctive, in that it places particular emphasis upon individual liberty
• however, new right thinking concedes that individualism is best pursued in a society that still values hierarchy and a traditional Judeo-Christian culture
• in the new right’s view, such traditional societies provide the security and discipline that individuals need to flourish

Question 36

localism (society)

Answer 36

• conservatism’s view of society is defined by a variety if themes, all of which are thought conductive to stability, security and orderly change
• when assessing conservatism’s view of society, it is important to say at the outset that conservatives would certainly acknowledge its existence
• unlike some liberals, who see society as little more than a collection of atomistic individuals, conservatives see it as a collection of localised communities – what Burke described as ‘little platoons’
• these communities provide their individuals with security, status and inspiration, while acting as a brake upon the sort of selfish individualism extolled by classical liberals
• one of Burke’s objections to the French Revolution was that it seemed to inaugurate a single French society would override local loyalties

Question 37

Judeo-Christian morality (society)

Answer 37

• unlike liberalism, which stress rationality and humanity’s capacity to control its own fate, conservatism has a much stronger attachment to religion, particularly Old Testament Christianity, with its belief in original sin
• as a result, the conservative society often has an important role for the ethical guidance offered by Judeo-Christian morality, which includes a strong emphasis upon marriage, self-contained families, and individuals being held accountable for their own actions
• consequently, in a typical conservative society, religious principles, e.g., altruism and compassion help bind individuals together and curb the imperfections that both conservatism and Christianity see as inherent to human nature

Question 38

empiricism (society)

Answer 38

• due to its organic character, conservatives also look upon society in empirical terms
• this means that conservatives will deal with society’s issues in a practical, evidential, ‘this is how it is’ fashion
• there is no clear view of how society might evolve in the years and decades ahead
• this empirical take on society is in sharp contrast to the normative (how things should be in the future) view taken by progressive ideologies like liberalism
• Oakeshott observed; the conservative society is one that merely aims to ‘stay afloat’ in uncertain waters rather than sail steadily towards some specific destination

Question 39

conservative view of human nature

Answer 39

• the conservative view of human nature is defined largely by its response and opposition to those of other ideologies, such as liberalism and socialism
• whereas progressive ideologies take an upbeat view of human nature, conservatives are inclined to restrain such optimism by stressing human frailty and fallibility
• conservativism’s view of human nature has led to it being described as ‘a philosophy of imperfection’
• conservatives deny any possibility of a perfect, utopian society, comprising flawless and rational individuals: their view of human nature is descriptive
• conservativism rejects the malleable or ‘plastic’ view of human nature offered by socialism, and scorns the ideas that humanity can be significantly remoulded given the correct environment or society
• for conservatives, human nature is pretty much fixed and constant, the job of the politician is to accommodate, not alter, this reality
• conservativism’s stress on human imperfection is more nuanced than people think, reflected by interpretations from key thinkers over time

Question 40

three types of human imperfection

Answer 40

• psychological imperfection – humans fear isolation and insecurity; seek safety, feel secure in knowing their place. The response is: stability and predictability; security, order for certainty; traditions —> certainty; hierarchy —> know your place. Hobbes said we should sacrifice liberty in return for social order. Hobbes - ‘poor, nasty, brutish and short’
• moral imperfection – pessimistic view of human nature: humans are selfish and greedy but perfectible (original sin). Tendency originates from the individual rather than society. The response is: authority needed to contain our urges; law as a deterrent. Hobbes - ‘terror of some power’, ‘the desire for power after power’
• intellectual imperfection - the world is too complicated for human reason to grasp; aspect of divinity as God’s creation will never be fully understood. The response is: stick to what works already/what our ancestors did (tradition); not much point in the ‘blue sky science’ - pursuit of knowledge; avoid principles like human rights. Oakeshott – the political world is ‘boundless and bottomless’ - ensure that ‘the cure is not worse than the disease’

Question 41

tradition (society)

Answer 41

• the effectiveness of an empirical, conservative society rests heavily on the store it sets by tradition
• customs and habits are thus used to provide security in an uncertain world, with history and experience shaping whatever changes becomes necessary
• as a result, conservatives argue that change and reform, though inevitable, must be slow and not drastic, respectful not contemptuous of the past
• it is here that tradition dovetails with organicism as Oakeshott observed: ‘just as a plant’s new leaves are connected to, dependent on and explained by the plant’s roots and branches, so a society’s present direction stems from its past development’

Question 42

organicism (society)

Answer 42

• society is not something that can be contrived or created but rather is something that emerges gradually, organically, and therefore somewhat mysteriously
• whereas liberals believe in the infinite possibility of planning and arrangement, based on a belief that mankind can determine its own fate
• conservatives see the reality of an unplanned organic society, proof that human life is subject to complex forces beyond the scope of reason
• consequently, conservatives view society as less like a machine, responsive to whichever levels are pulled by human hands and more like a plant, growing in a way that can never be wholly predicted

Question 43

traditional conservativism and the economy

Answer 43

• traditional conservatives have sometimes been dubbed capitalism’s ‘reluctant supporters’
• on the one hand, they recognise that any assault on capitalism is also an assault on property, inequality, hierarchy, and the status quo
• on the other hand, traditional conservatives are sceptical of the classical or neo-liberal belief that markets are at their most effective when left alone by governments
• support laissez-faire capitalism requires an optimistic view of market forces, and is therefore somewhat inconsistent with conservativism’s scepticism and pessimism
• traditional conservatives have tried to resolve this dilemma by supporting a moderated form of capitalism, in which free markets are tempered by state intervention
• under this model of capitalism – sometimes referred to as protectionism – society and the economy would be insured against the vagaries of markets by state-imposed tariffs

Question 44

economy

Answer 44

• capitalism tends to nurture and widen economic inequalities and to sharpen the distinction between rich and poor
• conservativism, meanwhile, defends inequality and hierarchy
• so, it is unsurprising that ‘conservative economics’ have a pro-capitalist flavour
• indeed, Burke was a robust ally of Adam Smith, the father of laissez-faire economics theory
• the conservative support for capitalism is nuanced, this is because conservatives worships order, stability and continuity, yet free-market capitalism promotes risk, innovation and iconoclasm
• the dynamic nature of capitalism might well excite liberals, with their optimistic view of human nature but it can be quite frightening for conservatives, given their more sceptical view of human nature and their residual fear that radical change threatens dreadful outcomes

Question 45

conservativism and the economy

Answer 45

• this ‘protection’ of national producers and consumers was also consistent with traditional conservativism’s emphasis upon national identity and ‘one nation’, offsetting the globalising effects of free-market capitalism
• traditional conservatives in the 20th century were also drawn to Keynesian capitalism, whereby the state ‘managed’ market forces in the interests of full employment
• influenced by neo-liberal economists, such as Milton Freidman and Fredrich von Hayek, new right conservatives have generally had a more sympathetic view of free-market economies
• indeed, in the USA during the 1980s, free-market capitalism was often referred to as ‘Reaganomics’ on account of the support it had in the Republican administration of Ronald Reagan
• at the same time, the new right governments aimed to ‘free’ the UK economy through the privatisation of formerly state-owned industries
• yet, new right economics still manages to complement traditional conservatism in a number of ways:
• the new right argues that by disengaging almost completely from the economy, the state could then focus on true Hobbesian purpose of order and security
• the new right believes that a free-market economy will be a prosperous economy, this might promote ‘popular capitalism’ and destroy socialism, but it would also fund greater state spending on the police, armed forces and other agencies vital to the defence of a conservative society

Question 46

libertarianism and the state

Answer 46

• the minimal state will allow the emergence and co-existence of voluntarily formed communities that individuals are free to interact with or ignore at their own discretion
• the state’s role is that of the nightwatchman, overseeing the rule of law and protecting the rights of individuals
• neo liberals view the steady growth of the state from the 19th century as a negative development, with Nozick arguing that ‘ta for the most part is theft’ from the individual by the state
• neo liberals argue for a massive reduction in tax and state spending on society as both a moral and an economic imperative for individual freedom
• Nozick argued that the state encroaches on the lives of citizens and that welfarism creates a dependency culture, with the state owning individuals
• neo liberal economic Hayek argued that expensive welfare states should be abolished as they will eventually bankrupt society
• Nozick and Rand called for a rolling back of the state’s involvement in society to achieve atomism
• neo liberals argue for a radical deregulation and privatisation of services carried out by the state
• bodies regarded as obstructive to the free market, like trade unions, should have their power curtailed
• Nozick argued that the individual should be left alone in the economic, social and cultural sphere
• Rand’s objectivist philosophy saw her place the individual’s right to choose as paramount on issues, such as abortion and homosexuality
• Nozick and Rand argue that the growth of the state is the gravest contemporary threat to individual freedom

Question 47

neoliberalism (libertarianism)

Answer 47

• neo liberals reject pessimistic human imperfection, preferring the rationalism of the Enlightenment, that people are able to order their lives on a moral and logistical basis
• neo liberals like Robert Nozick and Rand reject empiricism which puts them at odds with conservative thinkers like Burke and Oakeshott
• the paternalism of noblesse oblige restricts individuals’ development as it limits choice and prevents them from learning from their mistakes
• neo liberals believe in egotistical individualism, whereby the rights of the individual are more important than those of the state
• neo liberals believe in negative freedom, whereby the individual should be free from as many external constrains (including the authority of religion) as possible
• neo liberalism challenges the idea of traditional conservative hierarchies and the legitimacy of the state with all its organic traditions
• society is atomistic and should be organised on meritocratic terms
• Nozick argued that ‘there are only individual people, different individual people, with their own lives’

Question 48

Rand and libertarianism

Answer 48

• Ayn Rand is associated with the term ‘atomistic individualism’, where autonomous individuals seek rationalised self-fulfilment
• on Rand’s terms, society does not exist as we are but as a loose collection of independent beings. Neo liberals’ view of human nature is quite different from the thinking of traditional conservatives

Question 49

libertarianism

Answer 49

• libertarianism – an extreme form of liberalism that considers the state to be an unnecessary and unwanted limitation on individual liberties which should be restricted as much as possible
• used in conservative thought – the state should be limited to mainly just protecting the people as most social problems can be solved through the free market
• Nozick – supported the idea of a limited state that fulfilled very basic duties only thereby limiting the impact on individual liberties
• free market can be trusted to enforce law and order
• extreme form of liberalism
• Nozick is a leading advocate
• they believe in an atomistic society made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals