socialism: differing views

Question 1

human nature - third way

Answer 1

• equality of outcome seen as a false form of economic ‘levelling’ which should not be encouraged
• support equality of opportunity as they believe in meritocracy
• equal minimum standard of living
• deindustrialisation means the role of social class is far less important now than it used to be
• focus on consensus and harmony rather that class division and inequality
• social inclusion

Question 2

state - third way

Answer 2

• ‘top down’ state intervention in economic and social matters is both inefficient and ineffective
• instead the state should focus on social investment in infrastructure and education to improve job opportunities and self reliance
• pursue collectivism in a more limited way
• may support nationalisation of key industries but still keep many in private hands
• deindustrialisation means class divides are less important
• the state can and should focus on issues that affect all workers, including non manual workers
• focus on ‘classless concerns’ such as green or feminist issues

Question 3

society - third way

Answer 3

• focus much more on harmony, consensus and social inclusion, rather than class distinctions and inequality
• community
• social and moral responsibility
• communitarian and liberal ideas to distance itself from the perceived moral and social downsides of neo liberal economics which can be seen as selfish
• competition to develop workforce’s skills and knowledge. Social investment

Question 4

third way

Answer 4

• the third way supports the importance of the market over the state, and so rejects top-down state intervention
• the third way is in favour of increases in competitiveness and productivity which result from globalisation
• new labour: the private sector provided public services through Private Finance Initiative schemes and Public-Private Partnerships
• the third way believes in the importance of community and moral responsibility
• the third way argues for a social model based on harmony and consensus, which is different from traditional socialism (traditional socialism focuses on differences in social class, and inequality)

Question 5

key principles and third way

Answer 5

• collectivism – individual actions are accepted as being important though there is still an awareness of a larger responsibility to society as whole
• common humanity – people have their own interests, but also have a responsibility to keep in mind the interests of the wider community in which they live
• equality – belief in equality of opportunity and equality of welfare, meaning that everyone will have the same start in life but differences are allowed to develop beyond that because people should be allowed to benefit from making an extra effort in life
• social class – class as a concept is fairly irrelevant and the state should aim to support the entirety of society, though its role here is limited, some minimums in terms of standards of living do need to be maintained, however to ensure class does not again become an issue
• workers’ control – representative democracy is adhered to and the state will have a limited impact on the economy or the lives of people who will be able to live their lives, private control is preferred as it does improve efficiency

Question 6

education and third way

Answer 6

• the third way believes in a competition state where the skills and knowledge of the national workforce are developed through social investment, mainly in education
• the aim of social investment is to improve people’s job prospects and increase economic growth
• Tony Blair’s new labour slogan was ‘education, education, education’

Question 7

social inclusion - third way

Answer 7

• the third way argues for social inclusion, which means people must gain the necessary skills, rights and opportunities to participate fully in society
• the third way argues for the importance of equal opportunities and a social system which rewards individuals based on their performance
• the third way states that welfare should be provided to groups of people who are marginalised and actively seek employment
• Tony Blair referred to the welfare system as providing ‘a hand up, not a handout’

Question 8

advantages of the third way

Answer 8

• the third way approach promotes social justice and can improve the lives of people in society who are most disadvantaged
• the third way promotes a more pragmatic approach to social justice - what matters is what works, rather than sticking to principles even if they don’t create equality
• the third way is more attractive to a larger range of voters - middle class voters don’t feel excluded and gain some benefit from social justice reforms, such as social investment in education

Question 9

disadvantages of the third way

Answer 9

• socialists argue that third way thinking lacks real socialist ideas because it does not commit as much to equality and redistributing wealth in society
• under Tony Blair, labour committed to privatisation, deregulation and the marketisation of the welfare state, which many people argue goes against socialist principles
• the election of Jeremy Corbyn in 2015, who strongly opposed the third way, shows how the third way grew out of favour with many labour party members

Question 10

neo revisionism - third way

Answer 10

• partly in response to this crisis of social democracy, from the 1980s reformist socialist parties in Europe and elsewhere revised the ideological stance and moved away from traditional social-democratic principles
• their new position, known as the third way or ‘neo-revisionism’ attempted to formulate an ideological alternative to traditional social democracy and free-market neo-liberalism in the context of a modern globalised economy
• new labour first introduced neo-revisionism in the UK during the 1990s.
• there is considerable disagreement over the third way’s relationship to socialism due to the ideologically nebulous nature of neo-revisionism

Question 11

the market - third way

Answer 11

• the third way accepts the primacy of the market over the state and rejects top-down intervention
• neo-revisionists accept globalisation and the ‘knowledge economy’ where information and communication technologies ensure competitiveness and productivity
• by endorsing a dynamic market economy and an enterpriser culture to maximise wealth creation, the third way has ideological links with neo-liberalism
• under new labour, for example, the private sector became involved in the provision of public services through Private Finance Initiative (PFI) schemes and Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)
• this pro-market economy stance also led neo-revisionists to downplay the socialist policy of redistributing wealth through progressive taxation

Question 12

community and welfare - third way

Answer 12

• neo-revisionists also endorse the value of community and moral responsibility
• here, the third way thinking distances itself from the perceived moral and social downside of neo-liberal economics – a market-driven free-for-all
• new labour attempted to resolve this tension in the late 1990s and early 2000s by linking communitarian and liberal ideas
• the resulting communitarian liberalism emphasised that personal autonomy operates within a communal context based on mutual dependence and benefit, balancing rights with responsibilities
• neo-revisionist initiatives in the UK regarding welfare and parental involvement in schools reflected these assumptions
• third way thinking puts forward a social model based on consensus and harmony that clearly differs from the traditional socialist focus on class differences and inequality
• consequently, third way advocates see no contradiction in endorsing what might be seen as opposing values or concepts
• neo-revisionists, for example, champion self-reliance and mutual dependence, and the market economic and fairness
• third way supporters have also shifted away from the socialist commitment to equality in order to endorse the concept of social inclusion (individuals can only participate fully in society by acquiring the appropriate skills, rights and opportunities)
• neo-revisionists therefore, emphasise equality of opportunity and the benefits of a meritocratic social system

Question 13

new labour and uk politics - third way

Answer 13

• although new labour was electorally successful in 1997, 2001 and 2005, many socialists criticise third-way thinking for its lack of real socialist content (for example, watered down commitments to equality and redistribution of wealth)
• in their view, neo-revisionism was essentially a labour rebranding exercise to make the party more attractive to middle-class voters and business interests following four consecutive general-election defeats
• growing disillusion with the third-way approach certainly helps to explain the election of an avowedly left-wing Labour leader, Jeremy Corbyn
• nevertheless, third way ideas have influenced various left-of centre parties, including the German SDP and the South African ANC
• furthermore, under new labour, neo-revisionism introduced important measure that promoted social justice and improved the position of the most disadvantaged in society (such as educational maintenance grants, the minimum wage and family tax credits)

Question 13

wealth and education - third way

Answer 13

• the third way does not oppose great individual wealth providing it helps to improve the overall prosperity of society
• furthermore, welfare should target socially marginalised groups and provide people with the assistance they need to improve their own situation
• Tony Blair summed up this approach as ‘a hand up, not a hand out’
• the neo-revisionist assumption here is that welfare should target those who are actively seeking employment and want to be self-reliant
• the third way also takes a different view of the state’s function, with neo-revisionists promoting the concept of a competition (or market) state to develop the national workforces skills and knowledge base
• with its focus on social investment, the competition state emphasises the importance of education for improving a person’s job prospects and boosting economic growth
• this explains why an early new labour slogan was ‘education, education, education’

Question 14

economy - social democrats

Answer 14

• accept a degree of free market capitalism
• mixed economy – nationalised key industries and privately owned enterprises
• collectivism of key industries
• Keynesianism – Keynesian interventionist techniques to regulate capitalism and maintain employment
• progressive taxation to fund the welfare state
• welfare policies to redistribute wealth
• the state should remain essentially in its existing form, with trade unions supporting the rights of workers
• limited reforms to social and economic structure
• reconciliation of free market capitalism and state intervention
• the way capitalism produces wealth is unequal and creates inequality and poverty
• state intervention can protect the public and remedy the weaknesses of capitalism
• this is because many social democrats have come to the conclusion that capitalism is not flawed as Marxists originally believed, but that it is resilient and adaptable

Question 15

society - social democrats

Answer 15

• more fluid of society – accept that class inequalities exist, but that these differences can be reduced through peaceful improvements, such as welfare and redistribution schemes
• stress the redistributive role of the welfare state funded by progressive taxation
• social justice – moral rather than revolutionary critique of capitalism

Question 16

state - social democrats

Answer 16

• accept some degree of free market capitalism
• limited state intervention can safeguard the public and remedy the shortcomings of capitalism
• pursue collectivism in a more limited way
• advocate targeted state intervention in the more limited form of welfare and redistribution programmes to help those in greatest need, this can narrow, although not remove class distinctions
• the state is not an instrument of oppressive class rule, but provides the welfare and redistribution schemes which can reduce class inequality
• want to reform, rather than abolish capitalism. Want to reconcile free market capitalism with state intervention
• support the use of peaceful methods to bring about change

Question 17

human nature - social democrats

Answer 17

• support meritocracy
• equality of opportunity – everyone should have an equal chance to do their best – a ‘level playing field’
• equal minimum standard of living
• see class as more fluid – there are income and social status differences between non manual and manual occupations

Question 18

social democracy

Answer 18

• social democrats argue for social justice, which means a fairer spread of wealth in society
• social democrats believe that the capitalist system is reliable at creating wealth but must be reformed because the way it distributes wealth causes inequality
• social democrats believe that peaceful methods can bring about change, and state intervention through economic and social policies can resolve the inequality caused by capitalism
• social democracy is a type of revisionist socialism, meaning that it does not oppose capitalism and believes it is compatible with capitalism
• social democrats believe in evolutionary socialism which argues for achieving socialism gradually through existing legal and political systems

Question 19

key concepts and social democracy

Answer 19

• collectivism – communal actions are more important and effective than those of individual people but it is possible to realise this within the confines of the existing system
• common humanity – people strive for a balance between their own interests and those of their community
• equality – belief in equality of opportunity and equality of welfare, meaning that everyone will have the same start in life but differences are allowed to develop beyond that because people should be allowed to benefit from making an extra effort in life
• social class – social class needs to be kept in mind as some people will be doing worse in life and they need assistance to give them an equal chance, the state should primarily focus on the whole nation’s well being however, rather than focusing on one class
• workers’ control – representative democracy is adhered to rather than a full control of the state and/or economy by workers, however, the state will have some control over the economy in order to maintain the welfare of the population

Question 20

Anthony Crosland - social democracy

Answer 20

• Anthony Crosland is a key thinker in support of social democracy and wrote ‘The Future of Socialism’ (1956)
• ‘The Future of Socialism’ argued that capitalism did not oppress the working class, because the new class governing the workforce cared about relationships with their employees and the reputation of their business
• Crosland stated that social justice could be brought about by the welfare state redistributing wealth which would be funded by progressive taxation

Question 21

Keynesian economics - social democracy

Answer 21

• political parties have had policy programmes based on social democracy which support a mixed economy of state- and privately-owned businesses, and aim to redistribute wealth through welfare policies to reduce inequality
• political parties based on social democracy often have ‘Keynesian’ economic policy. ‘Keynesian’ economics means spending more money to increase demand during a recession and using tax and interest rates to manage demand during times of economic growth to prevent a recession

Question 22

advantages of social democracy

Answer 22

social democracy works during periods of economic growth and high employment because people’s living standards will be higher and there will be greater tax income which can be used by the government to develop welfare programmes

Question 23

disadvantages of social democracy

Answer 23

• social democracy does not work as well during periods of economic decline
• when there is an economic downturn there is greater unemployment and more demand for welfare services, and at the same time less tax revenue to fund welfare support because fewer people are working and businesses are earning less
• social democracy lost its electoral support because of the shift to a post-industrial economy which was based on providing services, the shift to a post-industrial economy reduced the size of the working class

Question 24

capitalism - social democracy

Answer 24

• social democracy emerged after 1945 as western specialist parties embraced electoral politics and switched to the more limited aim of reforming, rather than abolishing capitalism
• ideologically, social democracy attempts to reconcile free-market capitalism with state intervention, based on three assumptions: although the capitalist system is a dependable creator of wealth, the way it distributes wealth produces inequality and poverty; state intervention in economic and social affairs can protect the public and remedy the weaknesses of capitalism; peaceful and constitutional methods should be used to bring about social change
• social democracy is chiefly concerned with the just or fair distribution of wealth in society; its defining core value is social justice
• this form of socialism rests on a moral, rather than a Marxist critique of capitalism: socialism is morally superior to capitalism (Christian principles have also informed the social-democratic position, notably the Christian socialist tradition in the UK and ‘liberation theology’ in Latin America)
• social democracy can encompass a variety of perspectives, including the acceptance of private-sector productivity and personal responsibility
• by the late 19th century, some socialist thinkers concluded that the Marxist analysis of capitalism was flawed

Question 25

Bernstein - social democracy

Answer 25

• Edward Bernstein published a revisionist study, evolutionary socialism (1899), which argued that capitalism was not developing along Marxist lines
• instead of succumbing to economic crises and promoting ever-deepening class conflict, the capitalist system was proving resilient and adaptable
• Bernstein argued, for example, that joint stock companies had widened the ownership of wealth through shareholders, rather that concentrating it in the hands of fewer and fewer capitalists
• Bernstein concluded that capitalism was not a brutally exploitive system and it could be reformed peacefully through electoral politics
• he advocated state ownership of key industries, and legal safeguards and welfare measures to protect the workers
• during the 20th century, western socialist parties increasingly recognised the dynamism and productivity of the market economy, abandoned their commitment to economic planning and pursued a revisionist policy of reforming capitalism
• the Swedish Social Democratic Labour Party and the West German Social Democratic Party made this shift officially in the 1930s and 1950s respectively

Question 26

social democracy, currently

Answer 26

• now, social democrats faced a fundamental dilemma: should they reduce inflation and taxes to stimulate the economy or prioritise the funding of welfare to protect the lower paid and unemployed?
• other factors also exacerbated the difficulties of social democracy in the 1980s and 1990s
• the impact of the shift to a post-industrial service-based economy, and the contraction of the working class due to deindustrialisation, reduced social democracy’s traditional electoral base
• the collapse of the Soviet communist bloc (1989-1991) inflicted further damage on social democracy
• popular rejection of the Soviet system also discredited other forms of socialism including social democracy, which looked to the state to deliver economic and social reform

Question 27

the development of social democracy

Answer 27

• the early post-1945 decades were the heyday of social democracy, but this depended on two potentially conflicting features
• by viewing market economics as the only secure way to create wealth, social democrats effectively conceded that capitalism could be reformed but not removed
• at the same time, social democracy retained its socialist credentials by calling for social justice and distributive equality-the reduction of poverty and some redistribution of wealth to assist poorer social groups
• social democracy was a balancing act that attempted to deliver both economic efficiency and egalitarianism
• this central tension within social democracy was concealed during the early post-war booms-decades when economic growth, high employment and low inflation delivered rising living standards for most people and the tax revenues to expand welfare programmes
• by the 1970s and 1980s, however, a sharp economic downturn exposed this central tension within social democracy
• with unemployment mounting, the demand for welfare services increased as the tax-based funding for such social support declined (due to fewer people having a job and company profits falling)

Question 28

wealth and state - social democracy

Answer 28

• in 1956, the British socialist Anthony Crosland put forward the intellectual case for social democracy in his book The Future of Socialism
• Crosland maintained that a new skilled governing class of salaried managers, technocrats and officials had now taken over the control of industry from the old capitalist class
• the pursuit of profit was only one of its objectives because this new technical and administrative elite also had wider concerns, such as the maintenance of good employer-worker relations and the protection of the business’s reputation
• consequently, Crosland asserted, capitalism was no longer a system of harsh class oppression, and extensive state direction and control was now irrelevant
• instead, Crosland emphasised the need for social justice (rather than common ownership) by stressing the redistributive role of the welfare state funded by progressive taxation
• under such a system, Crosland argued, economic growth would sustain social democracy
• an expanding economy would provide the taxation revenue to pay for welfare spending and improve the living standards of the more affluent, who were expected to finance this social expenditure

Question 29

uk politics - social democracy

Answer 29

• the British labour party remained formally committed to common ownership until 1995, but post-war Labour governments never subjected the British economy to extensive state control
• social democracy adopted a more limited programme, with three key elements: support for a mixed economy of both state and privately owned enterprises, with only key strategic industries nationalised, as under the Atlee Labour government of 1945-51; Keynesianism as a means of regulating the capitalist economy and maintaining full employment, reform of capitalism chiefly through the welfare state, which would redistribute wealth to tackle social inequality and the problem of poverty

Question 30

economy - revolutionary socialism

Answer 30

• state control of the economy
• collectivism is best as it utilises the capabilities of the whole society efficiently and avoids wastefulness and the limited impact of competitive individual effort inherent in a capitalist economy
• workers should have full democratic control over their places of employment
• workers are the key factor in the production process
• economic production determined solely by human need
• the ultimate aim is to dilute or replace capitalist control of the economy
• workers’ control of the economy based on trade unions and proletariat political institutions

Question 31

society - revolutionary socialism

Answer 31

• class inequalities, economic divisions and disparities in property ownership
• society is dominated by class conflict
• only communism can deliver a stable and unified society
• society must be completed uprooted and overhauled
• society must be replaced with new revolutionary institutions
• this can and often does lead to violence, as the ruling class will not want to give up its power without a fight
• any attempt to humanise capitalism undermines the principles and objectives of socialism

Question 32

state - revolutionary socialism

Answer 32

• a socialist state should be achieved through revolution
• the state is a bourgeoise instrument of class oppression which defends capitalist interests against the working class
• the state would eventually wither away, but to start with it is used to control and organise all means of production and distribution
• the primacy of the ruling classes in reinforced by key institutions and agencies of the state, such as the parliamentary system
• establishment of rigid hierarchical parties and dominant leaders with ruthless dictatorial methods to remove opposition and introduce totalitarianism
• collective action through a centralised state that organises all production and distribution
• interventionist – the state can be used to control economic production and distribution for the benefit of everyone

Question 33

human nature - revolutionary socialism

Answer 33

• positive view of human nature
• humans are much more effective when working together collectively (collective effort)
• the interests of the group should take priority over individual self interest
• fraternity – humans are bound together by comradeship, ‘brotherhood’
• equality of outcome – rewards should be based on contribution
• absolute equality – everyone should receive the same reward
• do not support equality of opportunity or equality of welfare as they do not seek to remove capitalism and structural inequalities
• social class should be abolished, class is fundamental to the economic and social divisions in society

Question 34

revolutionary socialism

Answer 34

• revolutionary socialism is based on the belief that the state uses its institutions to defend the capitalist interests of the ruling class against the interests of the working classes
• these institutions include parliament and the mass media
• revolutionary socialists believe that socialism can only be achieved through the full transformation of society and the complete replacement of the existing state with new institutions
• revolutionary socialists believe this may involve violence

Question 35

key concepts and revolutionary socialism

Answer 35

• collectivism – communal actions are superior to individual ones and may seem otherwise only because of the limitations of the existing capitalist system
• common humanity – humans are inherently good and wish for the best for their wider community more so than for themselves, capitalism leads people astray by providing benefiting for selfish behaviour, if not for this, people would be far more selfless
• equality – belief in absolute equality and equality of opportunity, meaning that everyone will be completely equal in society and everyone will have what they need, there will be no differences between people that could lead to conflicts
• social class – social class is everything and there is a clear antagonism between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, this can only be resolved through workers’ control and the eventual abolition of the state and establishment of a classless society
• workers’ control – the workers should have ultimate control of both the state and the economy with a view to the eventual dissolution of the former, this is the only way to ensure that workers’ interests are represented by these institutions

Question 36

against humanising capitalism - revolutionary socialism

Answer 36

• revolutionary socialists argue that trying to ‘humanise’ capitalism’, as social democracy does, still means that inequality and exploitation of the working class will exist in society
• revolutionary socialists believe that ‘humanising capitalism’ undermines the main goal of socialism

Question 37

advantages of revolutionary socialism

Answer 37

revolutionary socialism aims to bring about radical change to a society and can lead to the rapid development of a country

Question 38

disadvantages of revolutionary socialism

Answer 38

• the end of the cold war and the collapse of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe demonstrated the limits of revolutionary socialism, these regimes came about through revolutionary socialism
• the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union
• the collapse of communism in the satellite states of the Eastern Bloc
• revolutionary socialism has led to the rule of fundamentalist regimes in different countries

Question 39

marxism - revolutionary socialism

Answer 39

• a form of communism – even though Marx did not come up with term, nor socialism/revolutionary socialism
• come up with a ‘scientific’ diagnosis of the problems of capitalism and at the time, an explanation for political and historical change
• came up with a solution – an explanation for how his revolutionary road to socialism would come about
• gave some idea about how life would look in an idea socialist society

Question 40

the ‘diagnosis’ - revolutionary socialism

Answer 40

• Developed a philosophy based on a ‘scientific’ analysis of history
• historical materialism – the world and history is best explained in terms of the economic system being used
• this base (the type of economy) determines super structure (everything else, e.g., government, family, religion, education, culture)
• human history is a struggle between the oppressor and the oppressed
• capitalism is doomed because it needs the proletariat, who will eventually win – the proletariat are the ‘gravediggers of capitalism’
• socialism will replace it
• capitalism makes people work to produce things that they do not need, but to make commodities to be cold for a profit
• work because depersonalising and alienating, rather than creative and fulfilling
• capitalism creates two classes: the bourgeoisie, and the proletariat
• the bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat, e.g., paying them less that their work is worth (surplus value)
• capitalism is therefore unstable, because of this class conflict
• a cycle of deepening economic crises would eventually create the conditions for revolution

Question 41

the solution - revolutionary socialism

Answer 41

• Marx believed revolution was inevitable
• he anticipated these would take place in the most advanced capitalist countries – Germany, France, UK
• the revolution would be spontaneous and led by the workers
• there would be a dictatorship of the proletariat, which would prevent counter revolution by the bourgeoisie
• a temporary worker’s state would be created
• once class conflict had completely died out, the state would be no longer necessary

Question 42

the revolution of the proletariats - revolutionary socialism

Answer 42

• Marx and Engels felt other socialists were wrong, because they wanted revolution against political systems, whereas Marx and Engels wanted revolution against capitalism
• they said that a ‘proletarian revolution’ should happen
• lumpenproletariat (lowest level of society), were criticised by Marx for not understanding the benefits of revolution
• the petty bourgeoise (lower middle class) would not be involved in the revolution because they wanted self-preservation, and not a true socialist society
• the implication of these things for someone wanting to carry out a proletarian revolution is dictatorship and political repressions
• because of the force accustomed the new rules to regard violence as a legitimate instrument of policy; revolutionary parties typically adapts military style structures and all oppressional forces were also removed