liberalism: core ideas and principles

Question 1

the enlightenment

Answer 1

• during the enlightenment, people questioned traditional authority and religion and embraced the notion that humanity could be improved trough rational change
• social groups and people as members of social groups that they belonged to (e.g. class, family, village) were more important than individualism in the feudal era
• this changed when feudalism was displaced by increasingly market orientated societies and individuals were confronted by a broader range of choices and social possibilities
• kant had the idea that humans were rational beings and therefore should be treated as ends in themselves, rather than a means to an end

Question 2

the core ideas and principles of liberalism

Answer 2

• individualism
• freedom/liberty
• state
• rationalism
• equality/social justice
• liberal democracy

Question 3

individualism

Answer 3

• individualism is the idea that everyone is an individual with their own interests and a capability to follow them on their own
• used as a breakaway from previous, largely community-based ideas of society; people should no longer be tied to specific classes, families, etc, but should think for themselves and of themselves
• humans should be thought of as individuals, all humans are born with equal moral worth with natural rights
• liberals are generally sceptical of claims that individual freedom should be sacrificed for the collective common good, although modern liberals are in support of some collectivist measures
• Mill – individual is the best judge of his own interests
• Friedan – women are also capable of determining their own interest themselves (equality of opportunity)

Question 4

individualism and human nature

Answer 4

• liberals have an optimistic view on human nature
• all individuals are capable of reason and tolerance; humans have the capacity to progress/improve and recognise if they want others to respect their natural rights (of life, liberty and property) they have to tolerate others’ rights as well
• classical liberalism is in favour of egotistical individualism (individualism to satisfy their own wants and needs, they owe little to society)
• modern liberalism is in favour of developmental individualism (assumes that we may choose to make social progress and express a degree of altruism, a desire to live in harmony, focusing on the extent to which individuals are able to grow and achieve their potential)

Question 5

individualism and society

Answer 5

• all liberals believe that individuals are more important than society as a whole
• individuals should be left as free as possible to pursue their own interests
• classical liberals have a more atomistic view on society (society is no more than a collection of self-interested individuals, acting in their own, not society’s interests)
• modern liberals believe in a common good, in which all individuals should contribute to
• it is the idea that self-realisation is not possible in isolation; our freedoms, rights and ability to develop depends on other people
• therefore, it is in everyone’s self-interest to contribute to the common good -

Question 6

primacy of the individual

Answer 6

• John Stuart Mill argued that ‘over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign’
• an individual has responsibility for their own actions, and is a rational being - and so an individual’s right to choose their own actions should be protected.
• liberals believe that the individual is an end in themselves (key principle of Immanuel Kant)

Question 7

individual and the state

Answer 7

• liberals believe that the state should not harm the rights of the individual, and dislike strong and paternalistic states which intervene on individual rights
• liberals believe the individual should have as much freedom as possible
• some liberal thinkers oppose government intervention in the free market, government welfare and other state policies that restrict individual rights, freedoms or responsibilities
• instead, the individual has a responsibility to achieve in society by the strength of their own ability

Question 8

egoistical individualism

Answer 8

• egoistical individualism is the belief that individual freedom involves satisfying one’s own desires and needs
• more extreme versions of egoistical individualism, such as parts of Thatcherism, don’t believe in a society - instead that we live as a collection of rational self-interested individuals
• this view of supports a state that is as small as possible, and individuals should have as few state restrictions as possible
• this view supports the idea of an atomised society
• belief held by classical liberals

Question 9

developmental individualism

Answer 9

• developmental individualists believe in a society, and although they support the ideas of individualism, they believe that individuals wish to live alongside one another
• support more state intervention than egoistical individualists
• developmental individualists support the idea that the state can make individuals more free by providing them with welfare and support
• supports collectivist society
• developmental individualism is a view often held by modern liberals

Question 10

individualism and society

Answer 10

• all liberals believe that individuals are more important than society as a whole
• individuals should be left as free as possible to pursue their own interests
• classical liberals have a more atomistic view on society (society is no more than a collection of self-interested individuals, acting in their own, not society’s interests)
• modern liberals believe in a common good, in which all individuals should contribute to
• it is the idea that self-realisation is not possible in isolation; our freedoms, rights and ability to develop depends on other people
• therefore, it is in everyone’s self-interest to contribute to the common good

Question 11

freedom/liberty

Answer 11

• liberties are natural rights that everyone has and allow people to develop themselves as individuals therefore, people not only have freedom to do things but also have freedom from restrictions or discrimination
• freedom – the ability to think or act as one wishes
• society should respect the rights and liberties belonging to all individuals and there must be a good reason for individual self-interest and freedom to be restricted for society to benefit as a whole
• Locke – humans are free by nature
• Rawls – freedom needs to consider inequalities in society
• individual freedom is the focus of liberalism
• however, this does not include unrestricted freedom (‘absolute’ freedom), as this may harm other people and becomes licence to harm others
• individuals have a right to freedom, but also a duty not to abuse others with it, or limit their freedom
• the state should have a role in ensuring individual liberty, and should not extend beyond what is necessary to ensure individual liberty

Question 12

classical liberalism and freedom/liberty

Answer 12

• classical liberals believe in negative rights (freedom from constraints, it is the idea that society exists to limit outside interference of others)
• Locke argued that in the state of nature (the time before society and government), individuals already had natural rights, which no rational person could refuse, and they lived in freedom
• he argued that individuals only agreed to form a society and move to a state of law so that there was an authority that could write and apply laws, resolve disputes, and guarantee the rights and liberties of individuals
• negative liberty supports a smaller role for the state

Question 13

modern liberalism and freedom/liberty

Answer 13

• Green argued that if you want to judge how free a society is, you have to look at how many people are able to contribute to the common good and make the best of themselves
• for example, the state giving social welfare to an individual may give them the income to do actions they wish to do
• modern liberals believe in positive freedoms
• positive liberty supports a larger role for the state

Question 14

the state and freedom/liberty

Answer 14

• the state should guarantee freedom under the law - and so should protect individual freedoms from coercion and external restrictions
• the extent of the state depends on whether positive or negative liberty is supported

Question 15

freedom as a natural right (and the state)

Answer 15

• early liberals resented how authoritarian governments and absolute monarchies retained full legitimacy, often at the expense of their subject’s freedom
• freedom is therefore intimately connected with the law as Locke argued ‘where there is now law, there is liberty’
• freedom is a natural right; Locke asserted that the role of government was the protection of man’s rights to ‘life, liberty, and estate’ - the state is needed to mediate between competing individuals to enforce order, to protect property rights and to prevent the breach of contracts and fraud
• absolute monarchies were illegitimate, and Locke argued for a state constructed by social contract, where individuals are governed by consent
• this idea was based on the rationalistic proposition that individuals would enter into a social contract to allow the state to as a neutral umpire to resolve clashes
• if the state were within their rights to withdraw their consent and replace the government – for many classical liberals, the American Revolution was a perfect example of a broken contract between the ruled and rulers
• the state would practice limited government so that the individual might enjoy the maximum amount of freedom within a legal framework, this freedom gave heavy emphasis to the economic sphere of society and the doctrine of laissez-faire capitalism

Question 16

John Stuart Mill and freedom

Answer 16

• freedoms Mill thought we had: the freedom of thought and emotion (this includes the freedom to act on such thought, i.e., freedom of speech); the freedom to pursue tastes (provided they do no harm to others), even if they are deemed immoral – harm principle; the freedom to unite (so long as the involved members are of age, not forced and no harm is done to others)
• Mill was described as a libertarian, which gives priority to individual liberty over all other values, and this means that libertarians try to maximise individual freedom and minimise public authority - they usually see the state as the main threat to liberty
• Mill’s ‘other regarding’ and ‘self-regarding’ actions
• self-regarding – individuals exercise absolute freedom over these
• other regarding – these can restrict the freedom of others or do them harm and therefore individuals should not have absolute freedom to carry out such actions

Question 17

capitalism

Answer 17

• liberals believe in the principle of free choice, and therefore that the capitalist system is the best way to ensure individual freedom in society and the economy
• the capitalist market is based around ideas of free choice
• some liberals believe in government interventions in the free market, but all support capitalism in one form or another
• John Stuart Mill proposed the ‘harm principle’ to deal with the problem of when it is appropriate for society to restrict individual liberty
• individual liberty can be restricted if an individual’s actions may risk harm to others
• this ensures freedom of the community

Question 18

the state

Answer 18

• a politically organised community which has a single system of government
• the state is a necessary evil that should be limited so that it interferes as little as possible with individual liberties but still maintains basic order that society requires
• the ideal government is a liberal democracy
• all liberals believe that the state is necessary to protect the individual’s rights and liberties from the threat posed by other people
• Locke – government by consent (social contract)
• Mill – government intervention can threaten personal liberties

Question 19

the extent to which classical and modern liberals agree over the role of the state

Answer 19

• liberals believe states must emerge via consent (Locke) - liberals support social contract theory as a core principle of liberalism, which shows the state as a voluntary contract between the state and citizens, consequently this is crucial for all liberals as the commitment to social contract is at the heart of the liberal view of the state
• liberals support a state to maintain order (Locke) - liberals agree that society needs a state in order to uphold order and ensure maximum freedom, this is a core principle for all liberals as, at the heart of liberalism, is a commitment to individual freedom, this this leads to deep agreement amongst liberals over their commitment to the state, which they agree is the only way that individual freedom can be guaranteed
• liberals believe a state is necessary to guarantee freedom (Mill) - liberals agree that preventing harm to others (Mill) is key role for the state, as it ensures that individuals have as much freedom as possible, therefore this can justifiably be seen as a unifying feature of liberalism, showing that preventing harm is an essential role for the state

Question 20

the extent to which classical and modern liberals disagree on the role of the state

Answer 20

• there are clear ideological differences between the two on the role of the state – classical liberals disagree with modern liberals over the role of the state in the economy, believing free market economics to be the best way to guarantee freedom, whereas modern liberals support Keynesian economics requiring state intervention, consequently showing a clear, irreconcilable conflict between them as their different views on how to run the economy are directly related to their different views in the role of the state
• classical liberals support a minimal ‘nightwatchman’ state, which is also shown in their commitment to free market economics – classical liberals disagree with modern liberals, believing the sole purpose of the state is to ‘prevent harm to others’ (Mill) and to create order, as they believe the state has great potential for evil, whereas modern liberals believe the state has more potential for good, seeking to extend it beyond its basic function of ensuring order and preventing harm (Rawls), this shows therefore, fundamental differences in their view of the state’s purpose based on differing interpretations of freedom and the begin nature of the state in its reach
• modern liberals support an enabling state to help individuals to become free (Rawls) and believe a Keynesian economy helps individuals achieve greater freedom – modern liberals disagree with classical liberals about the state’s ability to enhance individual freedom, arguing that a larger, enabling state can help people to be free (Rawls), whereas classical liberals believe that any increases in the state automatically limits an individual’s freedom, therefore modern and classical liberals are diametrically opposed with regard to whether the state enhances freedom or diminishes it

Question 21

the state as a ‘necessary evil’

Answer 21

• for liberals, the state is a necessary evil
• necessary because it provides the structures that avoid disorder and harm to individuals
• evil because it has the power to coerce individuals and restrict individual liberty
• because of this, liberals believe in restricting the power of the state, especially in the economy

Question 22

limiting the state

Answer 22

• the state should be limited as much as possible
• liberals support limiting the state through constitutionalism (having a constitutional-style government, especially one that promotes individual liberty), having an independent judiciary, and supporting the rule of law
• some state intervention is needed to keep order in society, but this is minimal
• classical liberals support laissez-faire economics and support only limited state intervention in the economy
• modern liberals are more likely to support more state interventions in the economy and society to promote positive freedoms
• liberals support limited intervention because they see humans as being rational and able to improve themselves
• therefore, we should trust humans to make the right choices when given individual freedom, and the state isn’t needed to steer us in the right direction

Question 23

rationalism

Answer 23

• the idea that the world is understandable and explainable, and that people are capable of following reason which they can use to follow their own interests
• faith in reason means that individuals can be trusted to make their own decisions in their own interests and so freedom is justified
• also encourages challenging of established forms of authority
• Locke – humans are rational by nature
• Wollstonecraft – women, like men, are also capable of reason
• rationalism supports individual freedom and self-determination (freedom to choose one’s own path and future) - humans make decisions and moral choices according to reason and logic, and so must be entrusted to make them free from interference
• humans are rational, thinking creatures, they are capable of defining and pursuing their own interests
• the enlightenment period brought about huge advantages in science and technology - where some people had previously been happy for somethings to be unexplained/left to religious and superstitious explanations, people now began to think that everything was within reach of human understanding
• it emphasises actions based on knowledge, understanding and, reason rather than custom, tradition, and impulse

Question 24

classical liberalism and rationalism

Answer 24

• Locke’s ideas of constitutional and representative government (as opposed to monarchical government) proved hugely influential in England’s glorious revolution of 1689 as well as the American constitution
• Adam Smith’s ‘the wealth of nations’ is one of the most important expressions of economic theory within liberalism - Smith argued that capitalism functions best when the state takes a laissez-faire approach
• Mill’s concept of negative freedom has been hugely influential in countries such as the UK and USA in determining the parameters of state intervention, the autonomy of the individual and the atomistic nature of society
• many classical liberals were influenced by Bentham’s utilitarianism (the best, most rational actions for humans were those that produced the greatest happiness for the greatest number) - human nature

Question 25

modern liberalism and rationalism

Answer 25

• Rawls’ ideas of equality and social justice is a perfect example of abstract rational thought
• T.H. Green’s positive freedom which urged state intervention to assist individual freedom was a key rationalistic updating of classical liberalism that informed the ideas of a state sponsored welfare state
• Keynesian economics, although differing entirely from laissez-faire economics, was equally rationalistic in its conception
• Mill’s later ideas such as universal education anticipated Green’s positive freedom by arguing that the state must be an enabling state, facilitating developmental individualism
• both liberal groups agree on the free market economy
• higher and lower pleasures (Mill) - which argued that actions with the most utility are those that enable us to progress and develop our individuality and are therefore classed as higher pleasures – human nature

Question 26

progressive society

Answer 26

• liberalism promotes a progressive society, as it supports the idea that individuals are rational rather than ruled by forces out of their control (such as religion)
• as well as this, liberalism supports the idea that no human is less rational than any other, and supports equal rights and freedoms for women, people of all ethnicities and people of all social backgrounds
• as a result, liberals support progressive societies where all people have the same rights and freedoms
• liberals promote tolerance

Question 27

tolerance

Answer 27

• tolerance is a willingness to respect opinions, values, customs and beliefs (religious, political etc) with which you disagree.
• Voltaire is associated with tolerance, as his biographer Beatrice Evelyn Hall paraphrased: ‘I detest what you say, but shall defend to the death your right to say it’ in her 1906 biography of him
• John Locke is associated with tolerance. He called for Catholic emancipation at a time when people in England were not free to practice Catholicism
• a willingness to accept views or actions which are in conflict to one’s own
• toleration links to freedom because it is a guarantee of personal autonomy – freedom of expression or religion
• truth and reason link to tolerance – only through debate and listening to ideas other than your own can the truth be found
• Mill believed that tolerance was important for a healthy society
• later liberals, like Green, argued that there is a role for state and society in promoting the development of individuals. Without education, individuals might not have the capacity to identify their real interests and be able to participate in experiencing higher pleasures (tolerance)

Question 28

equality/social justice

Answer 28

• modern liberals prefer positive freedom
• formal equality – includes political equality which refers to the idea of one person, one vote. Includes equality before the law, meaning that only the law itself is of importance in legal decisions
• equality of opportunity – recognises that some people are born with disadvantages that they cannot easily overcome themselves. All should have the same opportunities at the start of life
• foundational equality – each human is born equal and has the same worth. Individuals should enjoy the same status within society
• Locke – humans are equal by nature, but those who hold property are better placed to rule
• Freidan – women need legal equality to become truly equal to men
• equality/social justice – ideas that everyone is the same and there are no privileges, especially under the law, where everyone is likewise treated the same
• used as a breakaway from previous divisions of society that very few could ever hope to move away from, everyone should be equal from the get go, having the same opportunities in life
• equality is the belief that all individuals have equal rights, are of equal value, and should be treated equally by society - liberals believe that all individuals should be treated fairly and impartially
• harm principle – it is not justifiable to interfere with self-regarding actions, which do not impact or hurt others (tolerance)

Question 29

justice

Answer 29

• liberals believe in just treatment - a key part of this is the belief that everyone shares the same natural rights
• this leads liberals to believe in 3 types of equality: foundational, formal, and equality of opportunity

Question 30

foundational equality

Answer 30

• foundational equality means the rights that all humans have, simply by being born – each human is born equal and has the same worth
• these rights cannot be taken away
• these foundational rights are also known as natural rights and inalienable rights
• individuals should enjoy the same status within society

Question 31

formal equality

Answer 31

• formal equality is the idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society
• formal equality is different to foundational equality as it means that the state has to provide rights by law to ensure this type of equality
• early liberal thinkers such as John Stuart Mill were opposed to formal equality, suggesting mechanisms such as weighted voting, where educated and land-owning voters had more of a say in elections
• includes political equality which refers to the idea of one person one vote
• includes equality before law, meaning that only the law itself is of importance in legal decisions

Question 32

equality of opportunity

Answer 32

• equality of opportunity is the idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to succeed or fail
• equality of Opportunity is aimed at addressing inequalities caused by what TH Green identified as the ‘cycle of deprivation’ which provides barriers that prevent some people from progressing in life, such as poverty, lack of education and ill health
• liberals believe that trying to create equality of outcome would lead to an unacceptable level of state intervention
• all should have the same opportunities at the start of life
• recognises that some people are born with disadvantages that they cannot easily overcome themselves

Question 33

modern liberals and equality

Answer 33

• modern liberals view equality of opportunity in a broader sense that classical liberals
• substantive equality of opportunity holds that those born with disadvantages have the same opportunities as everyone else
• Rawls argued that for competition to be truly fair among the equally talented, the fortunate may have to recognise that they may have to make sacrifices (e.g. pay more taxes) to help level the playing field
• a truly fair society, as Rawls would argue, that if you everything about it, you would be willing to enter it in a completely random place

Question 34

liberals believe in an equal society

Answer 34

• liberals believe in an equal society, but only equality in a foundational sense, where all people are seen as having equal moral worth and in a formal sense, where all citizens have equal political and legal rights
• all liberals believe in equality of opportunity, over equality of outcome
• they believe an unequal society that rewards those who work hard and use their talents well will also be wealthier than one where everything is shared equally
• society should guarantee the freedom of the individual
• classical liberals wanted a meritocracy in which society was led by the hardest working
• they believed in equality of opportunity, but only in a formal sense
• jobs should be open to all individuals and that competition will be fair if there was no discrimination

Question 35

liberal democracy

Answer 35

• liberal democracy – a form of government which combines the liberal principle of limited government with the democratic principle of popular rule
• a practical solution to the problem of needing a state but not wanting to limit individual liberties
• by having checks such as constitution and regular elections and ensuring everyone has a vote, liberal principles can be maintained while also ensuring that society is reasonably ordered
• a liberal democracy respects the will of the people and has regular free and fair elections. In a liberal democracy the government is held accountable
• John Stuart Mill argued that democracy helps individuals to develop - by participating in democracy an individual can learn and develop and therefore become more rational and fulfilled
• liberals argue that a democracy should have a constitution to ensure that the government’s powers are checked
• Mill – supported representative parliamentary democracy but wished to skew votes in favour of the smartest
• Rawls – a fair society must be determined based on one’s own lack of knowledge of outcome (veil of ignorance)

Question 36

the government

Answer 36

• the concept of liberal democracy is underpinned by the social contract theory of Locke (government by consent), whereby the government only hold power in trust for the people whom it serves
• government should be by consent as this was the only legitimate basis for authority
• liberal democracy was initially representative democracy
• Mill feared dominance of the working class if they were given the vote – he argued for plural votes for the educated and wealthy to prevent his own class being swept away by the proletariat
• Mill, like Locke and Wollstonecraft, has therefore been categorised as favouring elite democracy, whereby the establishment exercises the real power and has significantly more influence than the ordinary voter
• liberal democracy involves free and fair elections
• as well as safeguarding individual freedoms, particularly against tyranny of the majority

Question 37

key points of liberal democratic theory

Answer 37

• supremacy of the people – while classical liberals accept this as a broad concept of the social contract, this does not equate to full democratic representation; modern liberals are insistent that supremacy of the people mans that every adult should have the vote
• the consent of the governed as the basis of legitimacy – a concept that unites both forms of liberalism; elections provide frequent opportunities for the governed to register their consent
• the rule of law and peaceful methods of conflict resolution – the rule of law forms part of the social contract between the governed and the governors
• the existence of a common good or public interest – classical liberalism struggles with such concepts as it views society as atomistic and therefore any collective will is difficult for classical liberals to support; the developmental individualism of Mill and the social justice of Rawls base their version of society on more collective aims, such as a welfare state
• the value of the individual as a rational, moral, active citizen – both strands of liberalism can accept this definition
• political equality and equal civil rights for all individuals – classical and modern liberals are united on this; Friedan championed the rights of women in both respects, while Rawls’ theory of justice argued that not only were such rights a necessity, it was also a rational choice for individuals to make when attempting to ascertain the principles of a society

Question 38

limited government

Answer 38

• limited government means that the government’s role is limited by checks and balances, and a separation of powers to avoid too much power lying with one branch
• checks and balances are where the three branches of government (the executive, legislative and judiciary) each have distinct powers to check up on each other’s work and ensure there is not too much power in any one branch
• the separation of powers means that no one person can be in any more than one branch at any one time

Question 39

laissez faire capitalism

Answer 39

• laissez-faire capitalism is the belief that competition between people, seeking their own profit, benefits all in society
• liberals believe in a capitalist economy that has private ownership and is controlled by market forces
• a free market is one that is left to its own devices and does not have interference from the government
• classical liberals argue that this is the most efficient way to distribute resources in the economy
• prices are set by the forces of supply and demand and become stable so that producers and consumers can receive and pay a fair price for their goods and services
• in the ‘Wealth of Nations’ (1776) Adam Smith argued that the ‘invisible hand’ regulates the market, meaning that there is always an efficient supply, demand, price and distribution of resources
• classical liberals argue that a free market promotes freedom and individual responsibility - an individual is able to choose how they engage with the market

Question 40

Keynesianism

Answer 40

• Keynesianism is based on the ideas of the economist John Maynard Keynes and is an idea supported by modern and social liberals, rather than classical liberals
• Keynesianism is an economic theory which rejects some ideas of laissez-faire economics.
• Keynesianism rejects the laissez-faire idea that the government should have no involvement in the economy, and that it can correct itself.
• instead, the government should intervene to stimulate the economy by manipulating demand
• supporters of Keynesianism believed that the government should help the economy achieve price stability and full employment.
• this government intervention in the economy helps support some liberal ideas - such as equality of opportunity (by creating full employment), and the idea of the ‘enabling state’

Question 41

meritocracy

Answer 41

• meritocracy is the idea that individuals should be able to succeed in society on the basis of their ability rather than any other factor
• individuals should succeed based on merit rather than where they were born, how much money their parents had, and other circumstances of their birth
• individuals should have equal opportunities to succeed, so that those with the most ability are able to
• social mobility is important, as anyone should be able to achieve great things

Question 42

social contract theory

Answer 42

• the social contract is the idea that the state/society is set up with agreement from the people to respect its laws which serve to protect them
• the idea was popularised during the Enlightenment period and refers to a contract between the people and the government, based on the people’s consent (permission) to be ruled, given via their votes
• famous theorists who wrote about the social contract include Jean Jacques Rousseau and John Locke

Question 43

mechanistic theory

Answer 43

• mechanistic theory is the idea that the state is a man-made creation that individuals create to serve their interests
• liberals believe that the state is created by individuals to protect freedom
• as a result, interactions between individuals can help determine how the state functions
• the mechanistic theory opposes the organic theory of the state
• the organic theory of the state is favoured by conservatives, who believe that the state evolves over time
• the social contract is an example of the mechanistic theory - individuals come together to vote for a government to make laws to uphold individual freedom
• the individuals and the government have rights and duties towards each other
• if the individuals don’t like the actions of the government they can vote it out of power - and therefore change how the state functions