social inequalities - jenny Flashcards
Hakim (1979)
occupational segregation by gender existed, so men and women are usually doing different kinds of jobs
horizontal segregation
men and women crowd into different types of jobs in different sectors of the economy
vertical segregation
women occupy lower levels of pay and status in particular jobs
glass ceiling theory
even when women gain access to upper professions, they reach a barrier where they can see where they want to go but can’t get there
MacEwan (1994)
2 ways of measuring segregation:
- objective - using surveys/census data to calculate
- subjective - interviews/questionnaires to ask people if their job is exclusive or equally shared
Willot and Griffin (1996)
- researched group of long term unemployed men
- role of breadwinner was undermined but other male characteristics remained
- only elements of masculinity weakened instead of a crisis of masculinity
human capital theory
some economists suggest pay gap is justified as men will build up skills and experience through unbroken paid employment
Olsen and Walby (2004)
women face “systematic disadvantage in acquiring human capital” as pay is lower in occupations where its mainly women
dual-labour market theory
Barron and Norris (1976)
- primary sector - secure, well paid jobs
- secondary sector - poor pay, insecurity and no ladder of promotion
why women are in the secondary sector:
- womens unsuitability
- disputed career development
- weak legal framework for women
womens unsuitability
- women are financially dependent on men so don’t need a pay rise/promotion
- working mothers shouldn’t have management jobs due to the long hours
- employers hold stereotypical beliefs
West and Zimmerman (1990)
there are still powerful cultural myths subscribed to by some employers, e.g. not wanting a female manager
disputed career development
- jobs with promotion prospects often recruit young people as it requires continuous work
- few mechanisms allowed staff to take time out and return to a similar position
- having a child means women go back to square one in their career
Caplow (1954)
a husbands career may even dictate the geographical movement of the family and the wives have to leave their job
weak legal framework for women
- both the equal pay act and sex discrimination act fail to protect womens employment rights
- the SDA doesn’t apply to many areas of employment
- there’s no creche or nursery facilities
education
- 1/3 of women are more likely to enter high education
- 73% of women A*-C grade at GSCE
- boys are 4x more likely to be excluded from school
boys education
- hidden curriculum
- press from peer groups to adopt anti-school norms
- boys are socialised to be boisterous, active and assertive (Oakley)
income
- benefits make up 1/5 of womens income and 1/10 of mens
- 70% of people in minimum wage jobs are women
- women comprise 1% of the worlds wealth
Chant (2011)
women are more likely to experience time poverty as they are engaged in the triple shift
poverty
- 25% of women and 12% of men will be in poverty when they retire
- 52% of children living in lone parent families are poor
Savage (2011)
men are 40% more likely to experience social mobility in terms of climbing the career ladder
Warin (1999)
- majority of people believed men should be the breadwinners of the family
- contribution of fathers went largely unrecognised
- fathers struggle with pressure and role conflict
Walby (1990)
identifies 6 patriarchal structures:
- paid work
- household
- state
- cultural institutions
- sexuality
- violence against women
Hakim (2000)
Women have more choices than ever but responded differently, creating these work-lifestyle choices
- home centered
- adaptive
- work centered
Ginn (1996)
points out that rather than preferences women are opting for, its all too often employer attitudes
functionalists on gender inequalities
- since women give birth, it’s natural for them to care fo the child
- the division of the labour is inevitable
- women can’t do strenuous tasks because of their physique
new right on gender inequalities
- men should be the decision makers
- women should play a supportive role
- its a natural difference not a inequality
social class
describes the form of social stratification in modern industrial societies
the Hope-Goldthorpe classification
he distinguished 3 main classes broken down into 7 occupational classes:
- service class - managers of large companies, managers of small companies
- intermediate class - non manual, self employed, low grade technicians
- working class - skilled manual, unskilled manual
life chances
Max Weber - some members of society had much better opportunities than others to achieve desirable things n life
- live a long healthy life
- achieve good education qualifications
- owning your home
- enjoy leisure activities and holidays
income facts
- incomes of the poor having risen very slowly compared to middle class
- Britain has the most unequal societies in Europe
functionalists and new right on income
unequal rewards are beneficial as they encourage the talented to work hard
marxists and Weberian on income
the power individuals have allows them to have huge rewards as a norm, whereas ordinary workers have to bargain for rewards
types of wealth
- property
- physical
- financial
- private pension
Tony Atkinson
found an increasing proportion of national income now comes from inherited wealth, not a difference in talent
marxists on work inequalities
- derive from the need for capitalist employers to keep wages down and profits up
- managers act as agents of the ruling class so they get more rewards to keep profits up
absolute poverty
- lack of basic essentials to survive physically
- leisure activities and electronics are seen as socially necessary
relative poverty
judging if a person’s income is so far below the expected by the majority of society that they’re excluded from a normal lifestyle
social mobility
the movement of individuals up or down the social scale
intergenerational mobility
this is the movement up or down a place in society compared to the other generations of family
intragenerational mobility
movement between classes by an individual during their working life
problems with researching social mobility
- classifying occupations
- studies have ignored women
- studying the very rich and the very poor is difficult
problems with measuring wealth
- defining what should be counted as wealth is hard
- calculating the value of assets is hard (house prices)
- obtaining data about wealth isn’t easy
Gordon Marshall (1988)
found that someone starting off in the service class has 7 times as much chance of ending up there than someone from a working class background
Davis and Moore
social stratification is functionally necessary as it ensures:
- the right people do the most important roles with higher rewards
- these roles are performed to the highest standard as they have many people depending on them
Saunders - new right
- stratification isn’t inevitable part of society
- a degree of inequality is necessary to motivate people to compete
Marxism on capitalism suffering
it suffered because of these contradictions:
- polarisation of social classes (wages are lowered to create profits)
- alienation (have no control so turn to materialism)
- economic crisis
Weber - social stratification
there’s 3 aspects to social stratification:
- class
- status
- party
Weber - inequalities
based on the struggle between different groups to secure resources such as wealth
