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crime Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

crime

A

an act or omission which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law

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2
Q

deviance

A

the state of diverging from usual or accept standards

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3
Q

durkheim - anomie

A

anomie is the breakdown of social bonds and a disconnection from mainstream society which causes crime

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4
Q

durkheim - FIN

A

crime is functional, inevitable and normal

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5
Q

crime is functional

A
  • boundaries of acceptable of behaviour are made by deviance
  • strengthens social bond when crime occurs
  • public opinion causes a change in law
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6
Q

Megans Law (GB)

A

requires law enforcement authorities to make information about sex offenders available to the public

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7
Q

crime is inevitable

A

it’s not possible for everyone to be equally committed to the norms and values of society

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8
Q

crime is normal

A
  • higher levels of crime occurs in times of social upheaval
  • individualism is a source of crime
  • people look after their own interests during social change
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9
Q

Baby P

A
  • was a 17 month old boy who was killed by his mums boyfriend
  • he suffered more than 50 injuries in 8 months
  • he was seen 60 times by social workers, doctors and police
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10
Q

durkheim - Le Suicide

A
  • studied how suicide rates differ over religions
  • catholics had a lower rate than protestants
  • he argued this was due to a more collectivist society - it’s not just psychological, it’s due to social factors
  • the more socially integrated someone is, the less likely they are to commit suicide
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11
Q

durkheim - 4 types of suicide

A
  1. anomic
  2. altruistic - huge pressure and regulation from social forces to benefit society
  3. egoistic - loss of social bonds
  4. fatalistic - death instead of suffering
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12
Q

Merton Strain theory

A
  • people turn to crime to cope with the strain between their dreams and their reality
  • linked this to the American Dream of achieving happiness through wealth and status
  • the Internet is extremely powerful and fuels this by easily seeing other peoples lives
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13
Q

how do people adapt to the strain?

A
  1. conformity - making the most of what they’ve got
  2. innovation - reject normal means to reach goals
  3. ritualism - lose sight of materialism and wealth
  4. retreatism - drop out of society
  5. rebellion - seek radical alternatives like violence
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14
Q

Hirschi’s control theory

A

4 bonds to society:

  1. attachment - the people in our life and their approval
  2. commitment - being invested in your path of life
  3. involvement - being engaged in activities that fulfil your time
  4. belief - our values go against crime
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15
Q

Marxists causes on crime

A
  • capitalism is criminogenic
  • the law and the state
  • selective enforcement
  • media representation
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16
Q

capitalism is criminogenic: because of poverty

A
  • poverty is caused from low wages so stealing may be the only option
  • commodity fetishism encourages
  • they feel angry because of being exploited so will turn to crime
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17
Q

Bonger (1916)

A

activities like robbery and property theft are an inevitable response to the extremes of wealth and poverty

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18
Q

capitalism is criminogenic: it alienates the wc

A
  • theres a huge divide in society
  • the wc have a lack of control over their lives as they’re stuck in poorly-paid jobs
  • this frustration and aggression leads to crimes like vandalism (non-utilitarian crimes)
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19
Q

capitalism is criminogenic: it encourages the rich to get richer

A
  • it encourages them to commit white collar and corporate crimes
  • they are most likely to get away with it as they have the control in society
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20
Q

Frank Pearce

A

laws are passed by the bourgeoise parliament masked in a fake democratic process

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21
Q

marxist solution to crime law

A
  • overthrow the bourgeoisie
  • allow the proletariat to make laws
  • establish a state authority
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22
Q

Steven Box on law (1983)

A

laws are made to benefit the rich and are narrowly defined by the powerful e.g. murder is too particular and precisely defined

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23
Q

‘official view’ of crime

A

Box argued most people accept this as muggers, hooligans, terrorists etc as their acts are well publicised

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24
Q

mystique

A
  • people in powerful positions are able to mystify the public
  • government crimes are hidden
  • the police are allowed to go beyond the limits of the law
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25
Q

Althusser

A
  • the law is an ideological state apparatus that protects capitalism
  • law enforcement is selective and favours the rich
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26
Q

Lea and Young (1984)

A
  • other crimes not just corporate ones are an issue
  • crime is rising and impacts peoples lives massively
  • being a victim shapes someones life
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27
Q

Left Realists on policing

A
  • the public should have a greater role in it (consensus)

- elected police authorities should be used

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28
Q

relative deprivation

A

when an individual doesn’t have the same standard of living to their similar social group, which is a cause of crime

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29
Q

the square of crime

A
  • Left Realists
  • state (macro)
  • victim (micro and macro)
  • public
  • offender (micro)
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30
Q

Labours crime policy

A

“tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime”

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31
Q

Right Realists causes of crime

A
  1. biology
  2. lack of socialisation
  3. rational choice
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32
Q

Wilson and Hernstein (1985)

A

there’s a biological predisposition to crime in individuals but socialisation can get rid of this

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33
Q

broken window effect

A
  • Wilson and Kelling (1982)
  • leaving a broken window sets the idea that you can get away with a crime
  • damage to a neighbourhood has to be put right straight away
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34
Q

Wilson (1975)

A

argues in order to reduce crime there needs to be harsher punishments to stop the rewards outweighing the risks

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35
Q

Left Realist approach to stopping crime

A
  • poor education
  • poor housing
  • unemployment
  • law on pay
  • racism
  • poverty
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36
Q

green crime

A

criminal activity which affects the environment in a harmful way

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37
Q

the Deepwater Horizon oil spill

A
  • an oil leak accident caused 11 people to die and oiled 1000 miles of coastline
  • it showed BP didn’t have a functioning safety culture
  • they were fined 18.7 billion dollars
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38
Q

green crime is radical and transgressive…

A
  1. it doesn’t focus on law breaking behaviour, it focuses on causes and consequence of harm even when it’s legal
  2. it’s focused on harm to plants and animals, not humans
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39
Q

3 main ideas in green crime

A
  1. just focus on the individual breaking laws
  2. focus on any act even if it’s legal
  3. Beck’s concept of risk society
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40
Q

green crime idea 1

A

there should be a focus on the people breaking the environmental laws already laid down by governments , however this ignores harm done by the powerful

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41
Q

green crime idea 2

A

green criminologists focus on transnational corporations which harm the environment

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42
Q

zemiology

A

the study of harms

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43
Q

Risk Society idea

A
  • Ulrich Beck
  • threats to the eco system are now manmade
  • post WW2 technology has created new risks like nuclear waste
  • the emphasis on increasing productivity has created manufactured risks
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44
Q

definition of risk society

A

the manner in which modern society organises in response to risk

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45
Q

Nigel South and Carrabine et al (2004)

A

we should distinguish between 2 types of green crime:

primary and secondary

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46
Q

primary green crime

A

acts which may be legal but involves direct harm on the environment and people

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47
Q

secondary green crime

A

actions committed as a response to the commissioning of primary crimes

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48
Q

4 types of primary crime

A
  1. air pollution - fossil fuels adds around 3 million tons of carbon to the atmosphere
  2. deforestation - main criminals are governments, logging companies and McDonalds
  3. animal rights - 50 species a day become extinct
  4. water pollution - 25 million die a year from contaminated water
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49
Q

2 types of secondary crime

A
  1. organised crime dealing in hazardous waste

2. state violence against oppositional groups

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50
Q

1st type of secondary crime

A
  • safe and legal disposal of toxic waste is very expensive
  • criminal entrepreneurs will do it cheaper (eco-mafia in Italy)
  • they push the waste onto developing countries that normally have no safety standards
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51
Q

Scarpitti

A

argues hazardous waste industry is controlled by organised criminals

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52
Q

glocal

A

global actions with local harm

e.g dumping waste onto developing countries like Somalia and Nigeria

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53
Q

2nd type of secondary crime

A
  • state condemn terrorism by doing it themselves

- 1985 French Secret Service sank the Green peace ship which was trying to prevent the testing of nuclear weapons

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54
Q

Potter (2010)

A
  • uses the example of food riots whereby agriculture practices have been taken over to produce bio-fuels
  • nearly always the poor who suffer from environmental harms
  • rich corporations usually avoid any kind of repercussions
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55
Q

global organised crime

A
  • the scale of it is hard to estimate as lots goes undetected
  • it crosses international boundaries so border issues and lack of common definitions make enforcement difficult
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56
Q

Green and Ward (2004)

A

developing nations in extreme debt that it allows trans-national corporations that offer prospects of capital growth to break environmental regulation

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57
Q

non-governmental organisations

A
  • combat torture, imprisonment without trial and other human rights abuses
  • for example, Amnesty International and Green Peace
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58
Q

world government

A

it’s a controversial solution to green crime and involves a political body more powerful than nation states that can tackle major problems

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59
Q

postmodernism definiton

A

crime is a social construction based on a narrow legal definition and should be redefined as people using power to cause harm

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60
Q

Carole Smart (1995)

A

she attacks traditional approaches as she believes it’s possible to develop a meta narrative (master theory) to explain crime

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61
Q

culture of resentment

A
  • consumer culture encourages individualistic values

- resentment is caused from the big gap between expectations and achievements

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62
Q

Katz and Lyng (1980’s)

A
  • crime isn’t always rational and is done for emotional reasons
  • it’s about edge work and flirting with the boundaries of the acceptable
  • it’s seductive as it’s thrilling and risky
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63
Q

Simon Winlow

A
  • researched young working class men
  • they had low status jobs that offered no sense of identity
  • binge drinking was a way to escape the boredom
  • fighting meant they gained status and it was exciting
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64
Q

postmodernist causes of crime

A
  1. there isn’t one single cause, it’s all due to the individuals choice
  2. individualistic values influenced by consumer culture
  3. a culture of resentment due to lack of achievement
  4. the thrill of cried
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65
Q

Foucalt (1991)

A
  • surveillance culture monitors all of our private lives, not just criminals
  • gated communities are an example of this
  • people regulate their behaviour out of fear as they know they are being watched
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66
Q

postmodernists on crime prevention

A

society has fragmented and so has crime prevention, as there’s a rise of private prevention instead of reliance on the police

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67
Q

postmodernists on policing

A

they have become more localised and community based and now reflect the individuals
e.g. Sharia courts are used in British Muslim communities to settle family and marital issues

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68
Q

Foucalt on punishment

A

it used to be violent and carried out in public, now it’s psychological and is based on expecting people to change their behaviour, done behind closed doors of prisons

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69
Q

sovereign power

A
  • controlling people through the threat of force
  • people were severely punished
  • this made people obey out of fear
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70
Q

disciplinary power

A
  • controlling people through surveillance

- they change their behaviour as they know they’re being watched

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71
Q

deviance is relative

A
  • interactionalists believes theres no fixed agreements on how to define crime and normality
  • right and wrong depend on social context
    e. g. killing is wrong, but in war it’s expected
72
Q

Becker (1963) - Outsiders

A

people ask the wrong questions about deviance and assumptions are made that there is something distinct about acts that break social rules and the people who do it

73
Q

Becker - definitions of deviance

A
  1. anything that differs from what is most common
  2. pathological behaviour that suggest a person is failing to function well
  3. failure to obey society’s formal or informal rules
74
Q

Becker quote (1963)

A

“deviance is a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender’”

“social groups create deviance by labelling them as outsiders”

75
Q

Becker - stigmatised behaviour

A
  • individuals may escape labelling if they are discreet in their activities and others turn a blind eye
  • but if the deviant makes public statements about their acts, authority feel obliged to condemn them
76
Q

interactionism - societal reactions

A

the degree which people respond to an act depends on:

  1. the drive against the act at the time, relating to contemporary moral panic
  2. how much harm is done
  3. who commits the act, more emphasis on low status criminals
77
Q

Becker - step 1 to becoming deviant

A
  1. primary deviation - an act of impulse done by someone not committed to mainstream society
78
Q

Step 2 to deviance

A
  1. being caught and publicly identified which depends on social status of the person
79
Q

Step 3 to deviance

A
  1. being labelled in general and gaining a reputation
80
Q

Step 4 to deviance

A
  1. learning to enjoy the deviance and finding other similar deviants, leading to a master status
81
Q

Step 5 to deviance

A
  1. secondary deviance happens as they are unable to have a legitimate careeer
82
Q

Step 6 to deviance

A
  1. deviant career from being an outsider and self-fulfilling prophecy of the initial labelling happens
83
Q

Beckers definition of labelling

A

the public application of a negative description to a relatively powerless individual

84
Q

moral entrepreneurs

A

Becker states they create laws by identifying a situation that offends their values and form pressure groups to make a change in the law

85
Q

moral panics (Cohen)

A
  • created by moral entrepreneurs constructing deviance

- fear is aroused by publicity around shocking cases

86
Q

Becker - police enforcement

A
  • they react heavily to maintain public respect by seeming controlling
  • police forces have differing priorities
87
Q

crime and location

A

the location of crime is not random

88
Q

Shaw and McKay (1942) - zones

A

broke the city down into zones;

  • central business district
  • factory zone
  • transition zone
  • working class homes
89
Q

zone of transition

A
  • where crime occurs
  • poverty and bad housing
  • social disorganisation
  • people are constantly moving so there’s no bonds to the area or sense of community
90
Q

Graham and Clarke (2001)

A
  • moving through these zones increased fears of inner city delinquency
  • people in bad housing were being rehoused into new towns and suburban housing estates
91
Q

gentrification

A
  • attempts are made to reclaim inner city areas and make middle class people by property there
  • it made inner cities feel safer
  • but it made life harder for the poor people in these areas
92
Q

Operation Swamp

A
  • conducted by police in Brixton in 1981
  • made to combat street crime by stop and searching of ethnic minorities increasing
  • turned into riots from the black population
93
Q

what caused housing estate crime?

A
  • no social stability or cohesion
  • media attention shifted from inner city crime to housing estates
  • Murray blame single parent families
94
Q

Shaw and McKay - social disorganisation

A
  • crime was a function of neighbourhood dynamics
  • new immigrants joined the zot leading to ethnic divisions
  • social control through institutions were weak and unable to regulate youth behaviour
95
Q

Skogan (1990)

A
  • respectable people move away from these areas
  • less law abiding people are around
  • the reputation of the area plummets, and so does house prices
  • zero tolerance policing can help areas that begin to tip
96
Q

target hardening

A
  • discourages potential offenders from impulsive crime

- however it just displaces crime to less protected areas

97
Q

women in prison stats

A
  • they make up 5% of population in the UK
  • 12 women’s prison in England
  • 53% report childhood abuse
98
Q

women’s sentencing

A

women serve prison sentences for minor offences and most women entering prison have short sentences

99
Q

women in prison mental health

A
  • 5 times more likely to have a mental health concern than general public
  • 46% report attempted suicide, twice the rate of men
  • 21% of all self harm incidents were women
100
Q

mothers in prison

A
  • 9% of children are looked after by their father

- average distance from home is 66 miles

101
Q

women after prison

A
  • 1/3 lose their possessions and homes while in prison
  • 38% didn’t have accommodation after release
  • 48% are re-convicted within a year
102
Q

Campell (1993)

A

females are seen to have deviated from socially constructed sexual norms and are trying to be men and society is reluctant to accept women commit sex crimes against children

103
Q

Casburn (1985)

A

found courts to be harsher with female juveniles in cases of truancy, sexual promiscuity or resistance to family authority

104
Q

Charlotte Day quote

A

“when a women commits a crime, the courts are likely to view her as having transgressed not only a legal law, but also the idea of feminine behaviour”

105
Q

‘Angel of Death’ example

A
  • in 1993, nurse Beverly Allitt was found guilty of murdering 4 children
  • a UK daily newspaper wrote “women should nurture, not harm. Even today, violence is a male speciality.”
106
Q

Pollak - Chivalry thesis

A
  • men committing more crime than women is a myth
  • biologically, women are more deviant e.g. lying
  • judges favour females as its hard to believe they can be as bad as males
107
Q

Heidensohn (1986)

A

women who show maternal love, remorse, crying etc are more likely to be treated leniently

108
Q

reasons for lower offender rates for women

A
  • testosterone is linked with aggression

- socialisation of boys encourages violence

109
Q

Mandarak - Sheppard (1986)

A

found that a high proportion of women had committed property crimes because they were in extreme financial difficulties and needed to support their children

110
Q

Liberation theory - Alder (1975)

A
  • increasing gender equality has encouraged women into crime
  • feminist attitudes have encouraged girls to be more assertive
111
Q

Brownmiller

A

drew attention to pornography and the media celebration of violence against women

112
Q

Home Office stats 2015 - women violence

A
  • men are most frequent victims of stranger violence
  • 73% of domestic violence was against women
  • 30% of homicide victims were women
  • women are more likely to be stalked than men
113
Q

Lyndon (1992)

A

described society as obsessed with women’s rights and neglected those of mens, so female criminals are treated better

114
Q

UK Men and Fathers’ Rights

A

if a mother kills her baby it’s called infanticide and carries a lighter sentence than the same act done by a father, which is called murder

115
Q

marxist feminists

A
  • focus on the experiences of wc women
  • poverty causes crime
  • sexism is a function of capitalism
116
Q

liberal feminists

A
  • focus on sex role theory, socialisation of gender is key

- women are subject to greater control

117
Q

radical feminists

A
  • men dominate and control women because of their size

- sex, not gender, is the cause of crime

118
Q

Black/difference feminism

A
  • women’s liberation movement is “hopelessly white”
  • black males are perceived as sexual threats
  • black on black rapes are not taken as seriously as white rapes
119
Q

postmodernist feminism

A
  • individualism of society means that the structural cause of crime is undiscoverable
  • traditional criminology is written from a male stand point
120
Q

functionalists on statistics

A
  • take them at face value
  • believe they are social factors
  • dont question policing or crime reports
121
Q

right realists on statistics

A
  • accept them at face value
  • believe law is equally applied to all groups
  • focus on the underclass as statistically they commit the most crime
122
Q

left realists on statistics

A
  • can be accepted but are not perfect

- they look at other types of data as well

123
Q

feminists on statistics

A
  • women’s crimes go unreported or undetected

- lower recorded crime can be explained by greater social control

124
Q

marxists on statistics

A
  • challenge official statistics

- they are used to justify police presence and control in WC areas

125
Q

Official Crime statistics

A

police recorded crime figures that include crime in England and Wales and are supplied by 43 police forces and British transport police every 6 months and then Home office and ONS publish the figures.

126
Q

interactionists on statistics

A
  • critical of official statistics

- focus on the power of police labelling and police discretion

127
Q

advantages of official crime statistics

A
  • cheap and readily available
  • published annually so they’re up to date
  • cover a large part of the population
  • can analyse and draw trends and patterns
  • few ethical problems
128
Q

disadvantages of official crime statistics

A
  • crimes not recognised by victims aren’t reported
  • depends on individuals definition of crime
  • police don’t take all crimes seriously so they can be unreported
129
Q

crimes are not reported because of:

A
  • fear
  • lack of faith or access to the police
  • embarrassment
  • when there’s no gain
  • the trivial nature of many offences
130
Q

police discretion

A

allows them to overlook small incidents where the perpetrator is apologetic, while maintaining their authority by recording similar acts by confrontational offenders

131
Q

police practices

A
  • coughing
  • cuffing
  • stitching
  • skewing
132
Q

Simon Reed quote

A

“the police are misled, politicians can claim crime is falling and chief officers are rewarded with performance-related bonuses”

133
Q

British Crime Survey

A

was first introduced in 1982 and is carried out every year, where people are interviewed with a structured questionnaire about crimes and their attitude towards them

134
Q

CSEW

A

households are selected and each person is asked if they have been a victim of a list of selected crimes

135
Q

advantages of victim surveys

A
  • collects extensive information about victims
  • reveals the extent of domestic crimes
  • gauge different groups’ attitudes
136
Q

disadvantages of victim surveys

A
  • victimless crimes aren’t counted
  • response rate is 75% on average
  • corporate crimes are omitted
  • memories may be faulty
  • multiple experiences of the same crime aren’t reported
137
Q

Hope (2005)

A

identifies factors that affect crime surveys:

  1. knowledge of incidents
  2. not telling due to fear, shame or denial
  3. memory decay
  4. telescoping
  5. education
  6. multiple incidents
138
Q

Young et al (1986)

A

the most famous of local surveys was the Islington crime surveys that showed the BCS underreported the high levels of victimisation of ethnic minorities and domestic violence

139
Q

self report studies

A

came about in the 80’s and include questions about other aspects of life, like family background and social status and they are surveys that ask what offences people have committed

140
Q

advantages of self report studies

A
  • most useful way to find out about victimless crimes
  • can be quantitative and qualitative
  • can be longitudinal by following the same group over time
141
Q

disadvantages of self report studies

A
  • problems of validity as people may lie
  • it’s not representative
  • there are no surveys on professional criminals or drug traffickers etc
142
Q

2002/3 BCS on ethnicity and crime

A

black and ethnic minority backgrounds were at greater risk of being victims than white people

143
Q

Garland (2001)

A
  • governments now take it upon themselves to control crime and punish criminals
  • they use risk management by gathering statistics so they can assess risk better
144
Q

victims of violence

A
  • young men have the highest chance

- 88% of the cases the victim and offender knew each other

145
Q

crime stats on age

A
  • under 25 were the most fearful
  • peak age for male offenders is 18
  • peak age for female offenders is 14
146
Q

hypodermic syringe

A

mass media is a direct and powerful tool, assumes the audience is passive

147
Q

drip-drip effect

A

it’s a long, steady build up and explains how hegemony is achieved

148
Q

hegemony

A

the control of ideas

149
Q

Marsh (1991)

A

violent crime was 36 times more likely to be reported than property crime

150
Q

Ditton and Duffy (1983)

A

46% of media reports were about violent or sexual crimes, yet this was only 3% of all crimes recorded by the police

151
Q

Cohen and Young (1973)

A

“news is not discovered but manufactured”

152
Q

Walby (1991)

A

found that newspaper reports of rape cases focused on ‘sex fiends’ or ‘beasts’ but in most cases the offender is known to the victim§

153
Q

Surette (1998)

A

“the law of opposites”

- fictional crime is represented as the opposite of official statistics

154
Q

1980’s blame of crime

A

video games were blamed for youth violence as they glamourised it

155
Q

1990’s blame of crime

A

rap lyrics and games like grand theft auto were blamed

156
Q

UK government - extremism

A

“one of the greatest threats we face”

especially for Far-Right and Islamic extremism

157
Q

how the media causes crime

A
  • copycat crimes/imitation
  • glamourising offending
  • sharing criminal strategies
  • desensitisation
158
Q

McRobbie and Thorton

A

moral panics are much less likely to start as it is far less clear today what is bad as society is too fragmented and culturally pluralistic

159
Q

moral panic stages:

A
  1. media report a group/event in a negative stereotypical way
  2. follow up articles encourage the demonisation and create folk devils
  3. media encourages symbolisation of the folk devils
160
Q

media narrative

A

stories/frameworks that exist in mainstream media containing stereotyped understandings of the world

161
Q

hate crime statistics

A
  • doubled in the past 5 years due to Brexit and terrorist attacks
  • Religious hate crimes increased by 40% in 2 years
162
Q

Islamaphobia statistics

A

in 2015, hate crimes against Muslims rose by 50% in London

163
Q

consensus policing

A
  • prison is a last resort
  • local officers who know the area should be used
  • use a multi agency approach to understanding the offender
164
Q

conflict policing

A
  • reasons or causes aren’t important
  • remove offenders from the public
  • tazer, pepper spray, kettling, riot gear etc.
165
Q

Smart (1976)

A

girls commit less crimes due to stricter socialisation and control from families

166
Q

Left Realist causes of crime

A
  • relative deprivation
  • marginalisation
  • subcultures
  • individualism
167
Q

David Lammy review

A
  • CJS was biased against BAME people
  • Black people were 4 times more likely to be in prison than expected given their proportion of the population
  • lone parenthood, school exclusion and poverty disproportionately effected this group
168
Q

ethnicity and crime statistics

A
  • Black people were stopped and searched 7 times more than white people
  • Black people are 5 times more likely to be murdered than white people
169
Q

Pitts (2008)

A

since the 90’s, theres been a rise in violent ethnic minority youth gangs due to being immobilised at the bottom of the economic ladder

170
Q

The New Criminology

A
  • Taylor, Walton and Young (1973)

- they did none of their own research

171
Q

Cloward and Ohlin (1961)

A
  • deviance is a reaction to not achieving the values of mainstream culture
  • uses illegitimate means to gain these values
172
Q

Miller (1958)

A

wc boys have their own ‘focal concerns’ which they are socialised into like freedom, being tough and ‘streetwise’ meaning they’re more likely to have criminal subcultures

173
Q

Cohen - status frustration

A
  • status frustration for wc causes subcultures
  • they want to be like the higher classes but can’t achieve that status
  • reject mainstream norms and values
174
Q

Scraton (1997)

A

sees the police as an occupying force imposed on working class and ethnic minority communites

175
Q

Home Affairs Select Committee of the House of Commons (2007)

A

concluded a range of factors contributed to high levels of crime amongst black youth:

  • poverty
  • education underachievement
  • school exclusions
  • single parent family

Sociology (12 decks)

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