Social and Cultural Diversity Flashcards
Culture
habits, customs, art, religion, science, political behavior of a given group of people during a given period of time
- dynamic: each culture changing/evolving at its own rate
Macroculture
the dominant/majority culture
Microculture
the smaller/nondominant culture
Cultural humility
a way to view cultural competency as an ongoing process and not an end product
- you need a lifelong commitment to self-evaluation; fix power imbalances where they should not exist; develop partnerships to advocate for others
Demographics of US
“Hispanic” encompasses more than 20 nationalities including
Mexican and Puerto Rican as largest groups
over 60 million total
Demographics of US
By 2050, all minority groups combined will…
become larger than the non-Hispanic White population
Demographics of US
What percent of the population over 4 years of age speak a language at home other than English?
21%
Demographics of US
Median age of the US population is over…
38
Non-Hispanic whites are the oldest group
Demographics of US
Baby boomers
born between 1946 and 1964
- over 10,000 Baby Boomers reach 65 every day
- over 16% of population is over 65
Demographics of US
Baby busters
Generation X
born between 1946 and 1964
- characterized by seeking stimulation, wanting the facts - the right answers, wanting exciting/non-boring jobs, keeping options open
Demographics of US
Millennials
- largest living generation and follow Gen X
- raised to be self-confident, tech aware, goal oriented, civic minded, multiculturally inclusive
Demographics of US
More than this % of marriages begin as cohabitations
50%
(6% of all adults) decreasing marriage rate, increasing age of first marriage, increasing number of children born out of wedlock
Demographics of US
Over this % of children are born to unmarried women and the majority of such births occur within cohabitating unions
40%
Demographics of US
This % of households consist of a married couple and their children
24%
- families average less than 2 children
- 1 in 3 people aged 18 to 34 live in parent’s house (used to be 1 in 5 in 1975)
Demographics of US
Over this % of first marriages end in separation or divorce
24%
Remarriages have declined as cohabitation has become more accepted
1 in 6 newlyweds are married to someone of a different race/ethnicity
Demographics of US
Sandwich generation
those who are caring for their own children and their elderly parents
Demographics of US
Percentage of females in the population
51%
- but are 47% of the labor force
- about 58% of all women are in the labor force compared to 69% of men
Demographics of US
Life expectancy
79 years
Demographics of US
Has the percentage of adolescents who have a driver’s license, tried alcohol, who dated, and who worked for pay increased or decreased significantly over past decade?
Decreased significantly
Socialization Processes
Social factors
interact with biological and physical characteristics during individual’s development
Socialization Processes
Major social factors:
- parents/parenting styles
- peers and modeling of peer behaviors including play
- TV/social media
Socialization Processes
By age 3, most children achieve:
a sense of gender identity
Socialization Processes
Gender roles
a set of gender expectations prescribing how girls and boys should think, act, feel
- these expectations are promoted by family, school, religion, peers, culture, society
Socialization Processes
People are products of five different cultures:
- universal
- ecological
- national
- region
- racio-ethnic
Socialization Processes
Universal culture
as human beings, we are biologically alike; have the same biological needs
Socialization Processes
Ecological culture
humans are influenced by where they live such as northern vs. temperate climates
- language is influenced by where we live - also by what we eat/wear/live in
Socialization Processes
National culture
represents a country often with the same (one) language
- central gov. establishes laws/policies/institutions
- each country has a worldview and citizens socialize each other accordingly through education and other means
Socialization Processes
Region culture
a culture specific to a region within a nation
ex. Midwest, North East
Socialization Processes
Racio-ethnic culture
race refers to assumed biological differences including physical features that are used by people to identify majority and minority groups
- one may be treated as inferior
- race related cultures develop
ethnic refers to practices, language, learnings of a group and style of living which are often regionally or culturally based
Differences within ethnic minority groups
Most ethnic minorities are characterized by large differences between members of the group
- these differences are found across a range of variables including values, attitudes, behaviors, education, racial identity development, acculturation
- socioeconomic differences within an ethnic group must also be recognized
Culture
the set of values and behaviors that are learned and passed on within an identifiable community
- includes symbols/products of that community including language, food, rituals
Social class
differential levels of material possessions or economic advantage including assets/money
Related to social class
values, language, interpersonal relationship, style, worldview, different levels of opportunity, respect, influence
Cross-cultural counseling
Counselors and clients are the products of their respective cultures and social class
- in cross cultural counseling, the behaviors, thoughts, values of the client must be viewed from that culture’s perspective
- takes place within the larger socio-political environment which cannot be ignored
Cultural pluralism
the broad categories of individuals who may have special concerns and needs or seek respect, representation, development in society
- racial/ethnic/religious classifications, women, elderly, single-parent families, divorced, handicapped, LGBTQIA+, poor, children, young adults
- the idea that a minority cultural group will keep their own unique cultural values, yet they still participate in the wider culture
Cultural norms
represent a group’s basic interpretation of life
- provide values for living and lifestyle
Prejudice
preconceived judgment or opinion without grounds or sufficient knowledge
- may be positive or negative
- often irrational attitude or behavior directed against individual/group
Microaggression
any comment, action, gesture an individual experiences as hurtful or inappropriate based on personal characteristics/history
- often directed at racial/ethnic minorities/women/individuals with disabilities
- may communicate hostile slights or insults
- may be intentional or unintentional
Racism
the belief that some races are inherently superior to others
Can be expressed on an:
- individual basis
- institutional basis
- cultural basis (all or most members of a society express it)
Disproportionality
the process of treating some school-age children differently than others by referring them to special education or disciplinary procedures
- the result is these children may experience unneeded special services, less-rigorous curricula, lower expectations, more disciplinary consequences
Ethnocentrism
the belief that one’s own group is the center of everything; sets the standard
- may cause intergenerational conflict when younger members begin to adopt attitudes and behaviors of other cultures around them
White privilege
the subtle advantages and entitlements that European Americans experience, usually without their awareness
- such individuals have been raised with the perception that their lives are normative, average, ideal and that the lives of other white people are the same
- Benefits and entitlements accrue to white men
- white women and white individuals of special groups such as sexual minorities and people with disabilities experience the privilege differently
Acculturation
the extent to which an individual from a racial or ethnic minority adopts and incorporates the values, beliefs, customs of dominant culture
Assimilation
the extent to which an individual has changed so much that they are absorbed into the dominant group, losing own original values and behaviors
Cultural differences
historically, the scientific literature argued for differences between minorities and whites
- pathology and deficiency were more associated with minorities
- Arthur Jenson and others suggested genetic differences in intelligence
- The Bell Curve by Hernstein and Murray continued this thinking
- testing for differences predictably found differences between cultural and racial groups, often a function of assessment instruments
- environment and class factors explain academic achievement differences
Cultural encapsulation
- the substitution of model stereotypes for the real world
- disregarding cultural variations - believing in some universal notion of the truth
- use of a technique-oriented definition of the counseling process
Gilbert Wrenn
Worldview
how an individual perceives their relationship to the world including institutions, people, things, nature
- comprised of our attitudes, values, opinions, concepts and affect how we think, make decisions, behave, define events
Emic
the belief that you need to understand and help groups from their perspectives (their culture)
a SPECIFIC focus
Etic
the belief that you have a global view of humanity - we are more similar than different
- focus is on similarities instead of differences
Study tip: etic and altogether
Multicultural counseling
addresses and comprises all components of various cultural environments together with pertinent theories, techniques, and practices of counseling
Network therapy in multicultural counseling
may include intervention with immediate family members, extended family, important people in client’s community including religious/spiritual leaders and other respected individuals
- introductions may be important: someone from the culture could introduce the counselee to the counselor
- to be effective with many cross-cultural clients, the counselor may need to foster a relationship on a personal level through ‘small talk’ and more personal sharing than may be true with white clients
Familism
a Hispanic individual’s strong identification and attachment to family
Ivey, D’Andrea, and Ivey
Multicultural Counseling Theory
multicultural counseling should make use of indigenous helping roles and strike a balance between individual, family, cultural issues
Atkinson’s view on the traditional ‘time-bound, space-bound, cathartic psychotherapy’ with cross-cultural clients
it may not be relevant
the roles of the counselor may be more relevant: advocate, change agent, consultant, adviser, facilitator of indigenous support systems, facilitator of indigenous healing methods
White middle-class counselors may have underlying assumptions
- concern and respect for the uniqueness of clients
- emphasis on inherent worth and dignity of all regardless of race, creed, etc.
- high priority placed on helping others reach their self-determined goals
- valuing freedom and opportunity to explore one’s characteristics
- future oriented promised of a better life
White counselors often have Eurocentric perspective and view of the world
- there is a need to ascertain the assumptions which cross-cultural clients bring
Characteristics of counseling
Culture-bound values
counseling tends to be individual centered with verbal/emotional and behavioral expressiveness, with defined communication patterns, openness, intimacy
Characteristics of counseling
Class-bound values
strict adherence to a time schedule (50 minutes each week), ambiguous/unstructured approach to problems, seeking long-range goals or solutions
Characteristics of counseling
Language variables
there is use of standard English and the emphasis is on verbal communication
Characteristics of counseling
These values and use of language
could be sources of conflict between counselor and culturally different client
Issues of culture and class in cross cultural counseling
Normative behavior
each culture has a set of norms pertaining to almost every phase of existence
Issues of culture and class in cross cultural counseling
Structuring
defining the counseling situation may be necessary. Client/counselor roles may need to be defined
Issues of culture and class in cross cultural counseling
Tranference/Countertransference
feelings and attitudes towards each other’s culture are likely to be present
Issues of culture and class in cross cultural counseling
Language
verbal and nonverbal language may be highly specific to cultures; there may be little or no English spoken
Issues of culture and class in cross cultural counseling
Personalism
clients from some cultures like to get to know the counselor first as a person
Issues of culture and class in cross cultural counseling
Diagnosis
there must be sensitivity to making judgments about clients and their problems; what is “strange” to you may not be strange to them
- Use of tests may be contraindicated
Responsibilities as counselors
- confront, become aware of biases/stereotypes/values/etc.
- become aware of culturally different worldviews, values, biases, etc.
- develop appropriate help-giving practices/interventions/strategies that take into account historical, cultural, political, environmental experiences and influences of the culturally different
- develop awareness for and competence in client/student advocacy, systems advocacy, social/political advocacy
Racial/cultural identity development model
Racial/cultural identity development model
conceptual framework to help counselors understand the attitudes and behaviors of culturally different clients
Racial/cultural identity development model
Five stages of development of a minority individual
Conformity
1
self-depreciation attitude and identification with the majority
Racial/cultural identity development model
Five stages of development of a minority individual
Dissonance
2
current self-concept is challenged; there is a conflict between appreciating and depreciating self
Racial/cultural identity development model
Five stages of development of a minority individual
Resistance and immersion
3
the individual accepts/endorses the minority views and rejects the majority resulting in self-appreciation
Racial/cultural identity development model
Five stages of development of a minority individual
Introspection
4
the individual moves from the intensity of feelings in the Resistance and Immersion stage and becomes concerned with the basis of self-appreciation
Racial/cultural identity development model
Five stages of development of a minority individual
Integrative awareness
5
the individual can own and appreciate minority and dominant aspects of both cultures
Racial/cultural identity development model
Ego statuses (not stages)
coined by Janet Helms
- dynamic evolution rather than static structures or types
White identity development model
Whites may go through similar racial/cultural identity development because they also experience societal forces including racist attitudes and beliefs
- the stages are possible culminating for some in integrative awareness from which a nonracist identity emerges
Counselor training issues
- counselors should develop competencies in cross-cultural counseling
- courses should include a consciousness-raising component, affective component, knowledge component, skills component
- systematic eclecticism: we are feeling/thinking/behaving/social/cultural/political beings
- develop affective and cognitive empathy (reflects counselor’s learning about the client’s cultural background, daily life, hopes, fears, aspirations
Cross-cultural family counseling
- counselor must learn about the counseling issue within the particular family in its particular culture
- worldviews and values of family members should be ascertained
- traditional cultural family structure and extended family ties must be recognized
- family members’ interpersonal relationships must be identified
- identify the usual help-giving networks and structures which already exist for the cross-cultural family
Gender-based counseling
men and women have been socialized differently
- stereotyping and such issues as societal discrimination and different role expectations are based on gender
Counseling women
the application of long-standing theories of development and personality in women may be inappropriate because of their focus on men
- women’s development, interactions, expressive patterns are different than men’s
- more apt to initiate counseling than men, and to be more emotionally expressive
- focus must include attention to their unique attributes, history, socialization patterns
- developmental and physiological issues cannot be ignored
- many women experience conflicts in multiple roles they are expected to fulfill including childbearing/rearing, homemaking, career
Teen pregnancy
is dropping but the US still has the highest rates of any industrialized nation
- moms/children have more difficulties like preeclampsia (high BP during pregnancy), prenatal addiction, children with low birth rates, children who are delinquent and have mental health/addiction issues
Sexism
the belief that women should be treated differently because of and not according to their abilities
- women are more susceptible to some psychological problems (e.g., depression) than are men
Feminist approach to counseling
directs awareness of counselors to the historical oppression, marginalization, cultural limitations to which women have been subjected
Counseling men
socialization patterns for men include expectations that they be active, competitive, emotionally unexpressive
- their lives are more clearly laid out for them in terms of work and family responsibilities
- the words and behaviors men use are less revealing of inner worlds
- men are less apt to initiate counseling than women, and once there, tend to deal with their problems cognitively rather than affectively
- denial of problems and feelings, or simple inability to express them
- may be goal oriented in counseling
- group work may be effective in allowing members to build a community, make them aware that other men have similar problems, provide comfort level to challenge each other around defenses and denials
Counseling LGBTQIA+ members
should be aware of history of abuse/discrimination which they have experienced and continue to face
- coming out may be overwhelming
- sexuality is on a continuum
LGBT definitions
ally
a person who confronts heterosexism, sexism, homophobia in self/others
- committed to social justice and equal rights
LGBT definitions
Cisgender
individuals whose gender identity generally matches that assigned for their physical sex
LGBT definitions
Gender
a socially constructed concept that ascribes qualities of feminity and masculinity to people
LGBT definitions
Genderfluid
a person who shifts in gender identity and/or gender expression
LGBT definitions
Non-binary
a term describing anyone whose gender identity falls outside of the binary of woman/man
LGBT definitions
Polyamorous
the state or practice of having more than one romantic relationships during a period of time
LGBT definitions
Transgender
umbrella term for those whose gender identity does not match with that assigned for their physical sex
Past 15 years have seen significant progress on behalf of the LGBT population including:
- 2017 poll, 4.5% of adult Americans identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual
- as of 2013, Supreme Court ruled the US Congress-passed Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was unconstitutional
- as of 2015, all state-level bans on same-sex marriage were declared unconstitutional by Supreme Court
- About 91% of Fortune 500 companies protect workers based on sexual orientation
- Gender and Sexualities Alliance (GSA) Network clubs are found in over 4,000 middle/high schools
- the number of openly LGBT elected staet and national officials is increasing each year
Stanley Strong
Social influence model of counseling
counseling as an interpersonal influence process
counselee may view the counselor as having these characteristic:
- expert: has formal training, experience, special knowledge
- attractive: the counselor is perceived as similar to the client; the client has a desire to gain the counselor’s approval
- trustworthy: the counselor is perceived as wanting to help and is caring
YAVIS
Acronym for certain kinds of (desirable) clients:
Young
Attractive
Verbal
Intelligent
Successful
QUOID
Acronym for certain kinds of (undesirable) clients:
Quiet
Ugly
Old
Indigent
Dissimilar culturally
Intrinsic motivation
internal desire to be competent and to do something for its own sake
External motivation
drive to do something influenced by external rewards and punishments
Rotter and others
Internal control
the belief that rewards and satisfaction are contingent on their own actions and that people can shape their own fate
Rotter and others
External control
the belief that events occur independently of their own actions and that the future is determined more by chance and luck
Attribution theory
the explanations (causal attributions) we offer for our outcomes influence our future expectancies of success and our future motivation to succeed
Self-fulfilling prophecy
expectation that individuals will act in a certain way
a powerful attitude especially in its ability to influence school children’s performance
- differential expectations by teachers of various racial and ethnic minorities based on stereotypes are common
Bloomers
those expected to perform well
Disability
the actual physical or mental limitation
Handicap
exists if the disability impacts performance in one or more of life’s major roles because of some barrier (e.g., the need for a ramp to access a place of employment)
- alternative conceptualizations of handicap are: physically challenged, mentally challenged, other-abled or differently-abled, handicapable
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA)
in 1997, IDEA replaced PL94-142 Education for All Handicapped Children’s Act
The provisions of IDEA 2004 include
- free, appropriate public education must be assured to all children and youngsters between 3 and 21
- these individuals with handicaps will be placed in the least restrictive environment
- each person has an individualized education plan (IEP)
- children with qualifying disabilities attending private schools or those institutionalized are also eligible for services
The law provides for supplemental funds to communities for services to eligible children from birth through age 2 if the state meets requirements of the law
- the law requires that children with disabilities should be placed/educated with other children including those without disabilities
- mainstreaming and inclusion can be inferred from the language in the law
Older adults
Over 16% of the population is 65 and older
- at 65, life expectancy is about 18 years
- by 2060, this group will comprise 23% of the population
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA-1990)
the act prohibits employers of 15 or more workers to discriminate in employment (or even applying for employment) against the disabled (including substance abusers who are in rehabilitation, AA, etc.)
- also prohibits discrimination in public and private transportation as well as access to public buildings and facilities
- officially, a disability substantially limits the individual in one or more major life activities such as caring for one’s self, performing manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, learning, working
- current estimates report that 12.6% of US population have varying degrees of disability. The increasing older population is a prime contributor to this estimate
Ageism
negative attitudes and stereotypes which may suggest that older people are incompetent, forgetful, useless
Characteristics of older adults:
- by age 60-70, most adults have a physical impairment such as a chronic disease, sensory impairment, etc.
- some intellectual decline into the 70s is possible but not inevitable
- most characteristic personality traits remains stable
- estimates suggest 10% of older adults may have depression and other mental illness
- few older adults receive mental health services
- typical issues older adult contend with include: loss (death of friends/spouses), retirement and increased leisure time, physical changes, changing family roles including dealing with adult children
In counseling older adults, help them:
- build and maintain positive attitudes toward their worth and dignity
- educate society and advocate for a change in atittudes about obsolescence
- use a problem-solving approach; deal with specific and immediate problems
- use a structured life review process to integrate the past and prepare for the future
Older workers
- tend to have longer unemployment periods than younger ones
- their intellectual functioning is not impaired
- there is a persistent and progressive decline on speeded tasks
- their age is related positively to overall job satisfaction
- there is an increasing need for security and affiliation
Family abuse and violence
child abuse and neglect = known as child maltreatment
- abuse and neglect can be physical or psychological
- abuse occurs in all ethnic groups and cultures as well as SES
- most at risk may be children from families under stress including single parent families with few resources or social support
- often the family believes in physical punishment
- hyperactive, irritable, ill, premature, defiant children are more apt to be abused than others
- there is a greater tendency to abuse as an adult by someone who was abused as a child
- Spousal abuse and abuse of family members who are elderly or have disabilities also occurs frequently
Child sexual abuse
occurs most between ages of 7 and 13 by a male known to the child
Opioid crisis
opioid use has increased to crisis proportions according to some physician and government groups
- opioids are typically prescribed for pain relief, sometimes for psychological trauma
- opioid use is impacting the labor force
Teenage suicide
suicide is second leading cause of death among 10 to 34 years old
- rate has declined in recent years, but about 5,000 adolescents kill themselves each year
- at greatest risk of suicide in this age range are Indigenous or Alaska Natives
- more girls attempt, but boys complete more
Suicide indicators to look for
depression/anger, someone talking about committing suicide, having a place and the means, giving away valuable possessions, suffering loss/rejection
National Suicide Prevention Hotline
988
Societal stress and anxiety
clients are expressing and exhibiting more stress and anxiety since 2016
Some causes for the increased stress and anxiety may be:
- political atmosphere is more divisive and sometimes toxic
- there is an increase in violence and terrorism
- there is more divisiveness between racial and religious groups
- there are changes in the protections afforded LGBT groups
- climate changes and weather dislocations are increasing
- COVID has exacerbated individual/family stress
Climate change, dislocations, trauma
climate changes influence individuals, families, communities
These climate changes may result in:
- need to move out of low-lying islands and communities
- more devastation from tornadoes and hurricanes
- temporary/permanent displacement of populations
- psychological consequences including anxiety, depression, PTSD, substance abuse, suicides
Leon Festinger
Cognitive dissonance
- a source of motivation - we try to reduce dissonance
- Leon Festinger
Kubler-Ross
believed that dying people experienced the following behaviors and feelings:
- denial and isolation: “its not really happening”
- anger: “why me?”
- bargaining: “if I don’t die, I will…”
- depression: characterized by silence, suffering, grief
- acceptance: a sense of peace, it’s okay
individuals might skip or come back to a previous stage before moving on. others believed that these stages did not adequately represent teh dying person’s complex and often recurring feelings
- caregivers’ conscious or unconscious concerns could be an issue to the dying person in their moving through these stages of grief
- has been suggested that experiencing loss can lead to this series of emotions
Masters and Johnson
sexual interest and activity generally decline with age, but men and women may be sexually active into old age
- later sexual activity and practices reflect earlier activities and practices
- physical and psychological factors (including perceived attitudes of others) may influence sexual activity
Masters and Johnson approach was to use male-family co-therapy teams to work with the marital partners together
- believed that a primary reason for sexual dysfunction was the participant was ‘critically watching and evaluating’ their own sexual performance
- tried to suspend this self-evaluation
Nonverbal communication
- counselors interpret it intuitively
- when a discrepancy exists between verbal and nonverbal messages, the nonverbal one will be believed
Paralanguage
these are the other vocal cues individuals use to communicate including loudness of voice, pauses, silences, rate of speech, inflections
- part of study of nonverbal communication and is usually considered more accurate than verbal communication
Mediation
may present new methods of solution or may present a solution that would not be acceptable unless it was presented by a third party
- method of resolving conflict
Assertiveness training promotes
- ability to express all manner of emotion
- the capacity to express one’s rights without denying others’ rights
- differentiating between aggression and assertion
Androgyny
- every individual has both male and female characteristics
- Sandra Bem (Bem Sex-Role Inventory) has found that approximately 30% of children and college samples are androgynous
Androgynous counseling
helping clients find/uncover both male and female characteristics
Accountability
justifying activities engaged in by counselors to those served and to those who finance their work
program accountability has origins in gov. bureaucracies
accountability argues for performance evaluation
Culture epoch theory
suggests that all cultures - like children - pass through the same stages of development in terms of evolving and maturing
- recently, multicultural experts have come to believe that this is not valid
Which therapist was not instrumental in the early years of the social psychology movement?
Freud
Durkheim
McDougall
Berne
Correct: Berne
- the father of transactional analysis
Incorrect answers/rationale:
- Freud (known for book Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, which suggests that the group was help together by a bond between the leader and the group members which was kinda analogous to a hypnotist and their subject)
- Durkheim (one of the founders of modern sociology. Took group phenomena beyond speculation into research)
- McDougall (father of hormic psychology - Darwinian viewpoint suggesting that individuals in or out of groups are driven by innate, inherited tendencies, which lost ground after behaviorist movement started)
The APGA, which became the AACD until 1992 and is now the ACA, contributed to the growth of cross cultural counseling by
the 1972 formation of the Association for Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance, later known as the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development
Proxemics
the study of proximity
- relates to personal space, interpersonal distance, territoriality
Propinquity
the tendency for people who are in close proximity (ex. working at same office; living close) to be attracted to each other
Contextualism
behavior must be assessed in the context of the culture in which the behavior occurs
Carol Gilligan was critical of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development because
she felt it was more applicable to males than females
The frustration-aggression theory is
frustration leads to aggression
frustration occurs when an individual is blocked so that they cannot reach an intended goal (or the goal is removed)
Dollard/Miller
Festinger
Cognitive dissonance theory
Festinger
- individuals are motivated to reduce tension and discomfort, thus putting an end to the dissonance
- people don’t like inconsistency in their thoughts/attitudes vs. behavior
- dissonance is often reduced to denial
- people will change their beliefs to match their behavior when there is a mismatch. reduces the tension created by initial inconsistency
Festinger
Social comparison theory
we evaluate our behaviors and accomplishments by comparing ourselves to others
- high self-monitoring individuals care about their self-image and what others think of them
Culture is normative, meaning
culture provides individuals with standards of conduct
Mores are beliefs and social customs
regarding the rightness or wrongness of behavior
(Mores = plural of mos)
- develop as a given group decides what is good/bad for the welfare of the people
- people are generally punished for violating the mores
Study tip: mores and morals
Folkway
describe correct, normal, habitual behavior
breaking these generally results in embarassment
Breaking mores causes harm/threatens existence of the group
study tip: breaking folkway is just someone who doesn’t give a folk
- like drinking soup directly from the bowl, not using a spoon
Frank Parsons
considered first social reformer concerned with guidance in the US. focused heavily on sociocultural issues
- wrote Choosing a Vocation
In 1920s, Emory Bogardus developed social distance scale, which evaluated
how an individual felt towards other ethnic groups
- indicative of negative attitudes towards a number of groups
- wanting to keep a social distance from a certain group of people is seen as a form of prejudice
Foot-in-the-door compliance technique was created by
Freedman and Fraser
Foot-in-the-door, Freedman, Fraser
Third culture kid (TCK)
children raised primarily in a culture that is different than their parents’ culture during their formative years
Cognitive dissonance deals mainly with
cognition and attitude formation
- discrepancies or inconsistencies that create tension are caused by cognitions and attitudes
Active-directive model works best with persons who respond well to an authority figure
- counseling passivity is viewed as negative
- client would be disappointed if they did not receive advice
- assigning HW and teaching on part of counselor is appropriate
Is Rogerian person-centered counseling good for multicultural counseling?
Yes
- is nonjudgmental and is considered a great modality for multicultural counseling
Therapeutic surrender
the client psychologically surrenders themselves to a counselor from a different culture and becomes open with feelings/thoughts
- occurs when client is able to trust the counselor and self-discloses
- used frequently in intercultural counseling
Factors helpful in promoting therapeutic surrender
- rapport
- trust
- listening
- conquering client resistance
- self-disclosure
Assimilation-contrast theory
a client will perceive counselor’s statements that is somewhat like their own beliefs as even more similar (i.e., an assimilation error). They would perceive any dissimilar attitudes as even more dissimiliar (i.e., a contrast error)
Monolithic perspective
perceiving all people in a given group as being identical
- an individualistic perspective is better
Structuring (in terms of multicultural counseling)
when the nature and structure of counseling situation is described during initial session
- describe role of helper/helpee
- the greater the social/cultural gap, the greater the need for structuring
Autoplastic
change comes from the self such as thoughts and behaviors
Study tip: auto - automatically think yourself (internal factors)
- or autobiography (a biography about yourself)
Alloplastic
client can cope best by changing or altering external factors in the environment
Study tip: think about all the other factors other than internal
Ambivalent transference
occurs when a client rapidly shifts their emotional attitude toward the counselor based on learning and experiences related to authority figures from the past
Personalism
all people must adjust to environmental and geological demands
- the counselor will make the best progress if they see the client primarily as a person who has learned a set of survival skills rather than as a diseased patient
Cultural pluralism
occurs when persons of a cultural heritage retain their traditions and differences, yet cooperate in regard to social, political, economic matters
- suggests that certain categories of individuals often need special services
Social facilitation
the presence of other people improves an individual’s performance even when there is no verbal interaction
- Floyd Henry Allport
Sleeper effect
after a period of time, one forgets the communicator but remembers the message
- the communication may have more impact after some time has passed
The tendency to affilitate with others
is highest in firstborns and only children
- reflects research of Stanley Schachter, which concluded that the need to affiliate (associate with others) decreases for later-born children
Approach-approach conflict
easiest to help clients cope with since in most cases, the client can attempt both options: first one, then the other
- typically instill less anxiety than the other two types
ex. I have two job offers
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
both choices are undesirable
- clients often daydream, flee the situation, regress instead of confronting the choices
- may waver or vacillate
Approach-avoidance conflict
presents a positive and negative factor
- toughest type of conflict for the client to tackle as it generates the highest level of frustration
Salad-bowl analogy
more accurate than melting pot
- like the tomatoes and lettuce in a salad, people retain their unique cultural identity
In terms of research related to affiliation
- misery loves miserable company
- firstborns are more likely to affiliate than other children born later
- people affiliate in an attempt to lower fear
Which SES is more likely to engage in introspection
higher SES have more time to “look within themselves” (introspect) since they need not dwell as much on external survival needs
Edward T. Hall
Low context communication
there will be a precise explicit verbal explanation and possibly repetition such as summarizing at the end of a meeting
- common in the US, UK, Canada, Germany
Edward T. Hall
High context communication
implicit communication that relies on nonverbal over verbal, respect for tradition and the past, and is readily understood by others in the culture with a shared frame of reference
- common in Middle East, Italy, Spain, Asian countries
Means tests
determine whether a client is eligible for a social program or benefit such as temporary assistance for needy families (TANF) or food stamps
- often contrasted with social insurance programs such as food security for which a wealthy person could still qualify
Confirmation bias
acknowledging info that matches your beliefs and ignoring info that doesn’t
Misery loves company
is a true statement
according to Stanley Schachter
Anglo-Conformity Theory
people from other cultures would do well to forget about their heritage and try to become like those in dominant macroculture
- seems to be very euro-centric
Five-Stage Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model (R/CID) AKA the Minority Identity Model
- Conformity: lean toward dominant culture and prefer a counselor from the dominant culture
- Dissonance: question and confusion, prefer a counselor from a minority group
- Resistance and immersion: reject the dominant culture while accepting one’s own culture
- Introspection: mixed feelings related to previous stage; prefer a counselor from one’s own racial/ethnic group
- Synergetic articulation and awareness: stop racial and cultural oppression, prefers a counselor with a similar worldview over merely a counselor who is the same race/ethnicity, but has different beliefs
not everyone goes through all the stages and some never progress beyond second or third stage. Some can move backwards
Zimbardo (1971 Stanford Prison Experiment)
a situation can control behavior as well as assigned roles, such as telling subjects to be a guard or prisoner
- would not be ethical today
Muzafer Sherif (Robber’s Cave Experiment)
two opposing groups of boys ended up working together because they were both attempting to solve the same problem (superordinate goal)
Solomon Asch/Asch Situation (1950s studies regarding conformity based on the length of a line)
in a social or group situation, people would sell out and agree with the opinions of others about the length of a line even when they knew the individuals were clearly wrong
John Darley and Bibb Latane (Bystander Effect/Apathy)
the greater number of people in a group, the less likely they are to assist a person in need (and will be slower if they do intervene)
Kitty Genovesse (1964) is quintessential example
- also known as group inhibition for helping
Stanley Milgram (1963 Obedience to Authority experiment)
65% of subjects gave painful electrical shocks to innocent victims when instructed to do so by an authority figure
none stopped even when participant said they had heart trouble
- some experts insist this could explain Holocaust
