Career Development (1/2) Flashcards
Five influential theories of career development:
- Donald Super
- John Holland
- Linda Gottfredson
- John Krumboltz
- Mark Savickas
Classification of Career Theories
Actuarial
theories focused on some ‘structure’ of the individual and how career development occurs from that basis
- needs
- traits
- interests
ex. trait-factor and needs-based theories
Classification of Career Theories
Developmental
career development occurs over time, usually through stages
- this process could include various structures such as self-concept and need
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Life-span/life-space theory
he preferred a broad self-description and labeled himself a differential-developmental-social-phenomenological psychologist
Study tip: Super and Self-concept
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Early Super
early conception of career development (1950s-1960s) included vocational development stages/tasks
- he believed self concept was implemented in choice of career
- identified the concept of career maturity (career adaptability)
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Development Stages
1 Growth
Birth to 14-15
Development of capacity, interests, and self-concept
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Development Stages
2 Exploratory
15-24
Tentative choices made
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Development Stages
3 Establishment
25-44
Trial (in work situations) and stabilize
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Development Stages
4 Maintenance
45-64
Continual adjustment process
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Development Stages
5 Decline (Disengagement)
65+
Pre-retirement, work output issues, and retirement
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Developmental Stages Memory Device
GEE MD
Growth
Exploration
Establishment
Maintenance
Decline
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Development Tasks
1 Crystallization
14 - 18
formulating a general vocational goal through awareness
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Development Tasks
2 Specification
18 - 21
moving from a tentative to a specific vocational choice
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Development Tasks
3 Implementation
21 - 24
completing training and entering employment
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Development Tasks
4 Stabilization
24 - 35
confirming a preferred choice by performing the job
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Vocational Development Tasks
5 Consolidation
35+
becoming established in a career; advancing; achieving status
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Critique of the ages of Super’s stages/tasks
ages no longer apply because some people have gaps in employment (careers) and recycle
- this model was primarily focused on white, middle-class, college-educated males
- Super recognized we can repeat/recycle through developmental tasks
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Later Super
by 1970’s, Super viewed career development as more holistic - involving more of the individual than just career
- presented concept of life-career rainbow that includes lifespan in major stages and life space which consists of the roles we play
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Life-Career Rainbow
9 Major Roles
- child
- student
- citizen
- spouse
- homemaker
- parent
- worker
- leisurite
- pensioner
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Life-Career Rainbow
Roles are played out in 4 theaters:
- home
- community
- school
- workplace
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Archway Model
graphic representation of the many determinants that comprise self concept
- one pillar of the archway represents the factors and variables within the individual that influence career development such as needs, aptitudes, interests, achievements
- the other pillar includes external factors such as family, community, labor market
- at the top of the arch between the two pillars is the Self of the individual
Donald Super (Developmental Approach to Careers)
Career Pattern study
examined vocational behavior of 9th graders all the way into their 30s
those adolescents who were career mature and achieving in high school tended to be more career mature and successful as young adults
John Holland (a typology)
Much of Holland’s theory is actuarial/structured in approach
but he goes to considerable lengths to explain how types develop
John Holland (a typology)
Types
provide the energy and motivation to do certain things, learn certain skills, associate with particular people, avoid other skills as well as people
John Holland (a typology)
Career choice is an expression of personality
we choose a career based on the stereotypes we hold about different jobs or career
John Holland (a typology)
Six modal personal orientations (personality types)
developed based on genetic factors, environment, parental influences
- every person has all six types in varying amounts
- occupational environments may be categorized into the same six types because environments are defined by the people (types) in that environment
John Holland (a typology)
Six Types:
Realistic
- aggressive
- prefers explicit tasks requiring physical manipulation
- has poor interpersonal skills
- ex. mechanic, technician
John Holland (a typology)
Six Types:
Investigative
- intellectual
- prefers systematic, creative investigation activities
- has poor persuasive and social skills
- ex. chemist, computer programmer
John Holland (a typology)
Six Types:
Artistic
- imaginative
- prefers self-expression via physical, verbal, other materials
- dislikes systematic and ordered activities
- ex. artist, editor
John Holland (a typology)
Six Types:
Social
- social
- prefers activities that inform, develop, enlighten others
- dislikes activities involving tools or machines
- ex. teacher, counselor
John Holland (a typology)
Six Types:
Enterprising
- extroverted
- prefers leadership/persuasive roles
- dislikes abstract, cautious activities
- ex. manager, sales personnel
John Holland (a typology)
Six Types:
Conventional
- practical
- prefers ordered, structured activities
- dislikes ambiguous and unsystematized tasks
- ex. file clerk, cost accountant
John Holland (a typology)
Many methods for determining an individual’s type
- Vocational Preference Inventory
- Self-Directed Search (based on Holland’s work, self-administered/scored; gives thee highest scores based on Holland personality types; many different versions)
- Strong Interest Inventory and Career Assessment Inventory were not developed by Holland but adopted his typology
- focused questions in an interview can usually determine the Holland type
John Holland (a typology)
Hexagon
used to explain some important concepts about his theory
- types must be arranged around the hexagon (RIASEC)
John Holland (a typology)
Hexagon: Consistency
adjacent pairs of types are more psychologically alike than nonadjacent pairs
John Holland (a typology)
Hexagon: Differentiation
an individual’s profile of six types has significant highs and lows (differentiated) or that profile of six types tends to be flat (undifferentiated)
John Holland (a typology)
Hexagon: Congruence
the individual’s type and the environment type are the same
John Holland (a typology)
Hexagon: Vocational Identity
high identity individuals are those who have a clear and stable picture of their interests and goals
Linda Gottfredson (developmental) - Circumscription and Compromise
Theory focuses on
the vocational development processes experienced by children
- vocational self-concept is central and influences occupational selection
- individuals circumscribe (narrow down occupations) and compromise (opt out of unavailable or inappropriate occupations) as they develop
Linda Gottfredson (developmental) - Circumscription and Compromise
Individual development progresses through four stages:
Orientation to size and power
3 - 5
- children have neither; they are concrete thinkers and begin to understand what it means to be an adult
- even as young as age 3, they can name occupations they would like to do
Linda Gottfredson (developmental) - Circumscription and Compromise
Individual development progresses through four stages:
Orientation to sex roles
6 - 8
- children learn that adults have different roles, and occupations are sex-typed
- even today, most occupations are performed primarily by one sex or the other
Linda Gottfredson (developmental) - Circumscription and Compromise
Individual development progresses through four stages:
Orientation to social valuation
9 - 13
- there is greater awareness of values held by peers, family, community
- occupations vary greatly in social value - desirability
Linda Gottfredson (developmental) - Circumscription and Compromise
Individual development progresses through four stages:
Orientation to internal unique self
14+
- in occupational selection as a teen or adult, internal factors such as aspirations, values, interests are critical
Linda Gottfredson (developmental) - Circumscription and Compromise
Young Children (6-8, and even younger)
tend to choose occupations which fit their gender
Linda Gottfredson (developmental) - Circumscription and Compromise
Preadolescents
tend to choose occupations which have social values consistent with their perceived social class
- may rule out occupations which are inappropriate because of a mismatch in ability, intelligence level or cultural factors
Linda Gottfredson (developmental) - Circumscription and Compromise
Teenage years and later
self-awareness of personal characteristics helps determine which occupation is selected
Linda Gottfredson (developmental) - Circumscription and Compromise
Zone of acceptable alternatives
individuals develop a cognitive map of occupations based on sex-type, social value (prestige), and field of work (interest area)
- zone of acceptable alternatives is identified and occupations within this range are consistent with the individual’s self-concept
John Krumboltz (Learning Theory of Career Counseling - LTCC)
Uses this theorist’s concepts to identify the principle concepts for this theory of career development/counseling
Bandura’s social learning theory
- Krumboltz felt that interests are the result of learning, such that changes in interest can be learned … actual exposure to a wide range of work settings through site visits is highly desirable
- occupational indecisiveness is an indication of an information deficit rather than a lack of career maturity
John Krumboltz (Learning Theory of Career Counseling - LTCC)
Important concepts
- reinforcement theory
- cognitive info processing
- classical behaviorism
John Krumboltz (Learning Theory of Career Counseling - LTCC)
Career development and career decision making involve:
Genetic endowments and special abilities
includes inherited qualities which may set limits on career opportunities
John Krumboltz (Learning Theory of Career Counseling - LTCC)
Career development and career decision making involve:
Environmental conditions and events
events and circumstances influence skill development, activities, career preferences
may involve:
- natural resources
- economic conditions
- legislation
John Krumboltz (Learning Theory of Career Counseling - LTCC)
Career development and career decision making involve:
Instrumental and associative learning experiences
- learning through reactions to consequences, results of actions, and through reactions to others
- reinforcement and non-reinforcement of behaviors and skills are important
- associative learning experiences come from associations learned through observations and written materials
- influence an individual’s perceptions
John Krumboltz (Learning Theory of Career Counseling - LTCC)
Career development and career decision making involve:
Task approach skills (problem-solving skills, work habits, etc.)
skills acquired such as problem-solving, work habits, mental sets, emotional/cognitive responses
John Krumboltz (Learning Theory of Career Counseling - LTCC)
Learning experiences over the lifetime influence career choice
an individual’s generalizations and beliefs may be problematic and may need to challenged by the career counselor
- new beliefs and courses of action may need to be learned and substituted
John Krumboltz (Learning Theory of Career Counseling - LTCC)
The Career Beliefs Inventory
by Krumboltz
- may be used to identify clients’ mental barriers preventing them from taking action
John Krumboltz (Learning Theory of Career Counseling - LTCC)
Planned happenstance
Unplanned/chance events influence career development; such occurrences should be expected and taken advantage of
John Krumboltz (Learning Theory of Career Counseling - LTCC)
This theory is also called a decision-making theory or cognitive theory
Krumboltz believed that decision making (in terms of both career and non-career options) is a skill which can be learned
- he acknowledged the role of genetics and environment but focused on what can be changed via learning
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, Herma
Developmentalists who first presented their theory in 1951 and believed occupational choice progressed through these three developmental periods:
fantasy
tentative
realistic
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, Herma
Three periods of occupational choice:
Fantasy
birth to 11
play becomes work oriented; based strongly on impulses
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, Herma
Three periods of occupational choice:
Tentative
11 - 17
four stages in this period:
- interest
- capacity
- value
- transition
interests and abilities are examined
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, Herma
Three periods of occupational choice:
Realistic
17 and older
three stages in this period:
- exploration
- crystallization
- specification
a choice is made by weighing abilities and needs and making a compromise
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, Herma
based their early theoretical formulation on:
a small group of middle-class males who supposedly had freedom of choice in occupation
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, Herma
Decision making was influenced by
adolescent adjustment patterns
Later, Ginzberg agreed that occupational decision making was a lifelong process
Ann Roe (needs approach)
These factors influence the needs structure each child developed:
- genetic factors
- environmental experiences
- parent-child relations
- — three parenting styles: overprotective, avoidant, acceptant (results in the child developing a personality that gravitates (moves towards) people or away from people)
also important: unconsicous motivators, current needs, interests (people/things), education, intelligence
- genetics help to determine intelligence and education, and hence this influences one’s career choice
Her approach is based on psychoanalytic, and draws on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- also known as person-environment theory
Ann Roe (needs approach)
Major determinants of the needs structure
Parental influences and early childhood experiences
- early child-rearing practices influence later career choices - job is major source of gratification for unconscious needs
Needs that are satisfied do not become unconscious motivators; higher-order needs will disappear even if they are rarely satisfied, but lower order needs (like safety) will be major concern
- needs which are satisfied after long delay will become unconscious motivators
Ann Roe (needs approach)
(this) is a function of those needs
occupational selection
Ann Roe (needs approach)
Careers were chosen to meet needs through either
person oriented or non-person oriented occupations
This part of the theory is not supported by research
Ann Roe (needs approach)
Field-by-level classification of occupations
Six levels
Professional and managerial (highest level)
Professional and managerial (regular)
Semi-professional and managerial
Skilled
Semi-skilled
Unskilled
Ann Roe (needs approach)
Field-by-level classification of occupations
Eight fields
Service
Business contact
Managerial
General cultural
Arts and entertainment
(the following are non-person oriented occupations):
Technology
Outdoor
Science
Ann Roe (needs approach)
Some support for Roe’s theory comes from
Rorschach and TAT projective tests
Study Tip: Roe and Rorschach
Robert Hoppock (needs-based)
identified a number of hypotheses which addressed:
role of needs in choosing, changing, and being satisfied with career
Based on work of Henry Murray (who created needs-press theory and TAT. Occupation is used to meet person’s current need)
Tiedeman and Miller-Tiedeman’s Decision-Making Model
Believes that career development occurred as part of…
cognitive development as one resolved ego-related crises
- career development paralleled the eight psychosocial stages identified by Erikson
Influenced by Erikson!!!
Tiedeman and Miller-Tiedeman’s Decision-Making Model
Career decision making is a continuous processes consisting of:
anticipation/preoccupation AND implementation/adjustment
Tiedeman and Miller-Tiedeman’s Decision-Making Model
Anticipation/Preoccupation consists of:
- exploration
- crystallization
- choice
- clarification
Tiedeman and Miller-Tiedeman’s Decision-Making Model
Implementation/Adjustment consists of:
- induction
- reformation
- integration
Tiedeman and Miller-Tiedeman’s Decision-Making Model
Importance of individual in decision-making process:
Personal reality (I-power) of the individual was at the center of this potential for self-improvement and subsequent self-development
- through a process of differentiating one’s ego development, processing developmental tasks, resolving psychosocial crises, career development takes place
Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, Peterson - Cognitive Info Processing (CIP)
A procedure for solving career problems was developed based on
a series of assumptions which emphasize cognitions, info, problem solving
Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, Peterson - Cognitive Info Processing (CIP)
CASVE
Communication
Analysis
Synthesis
Valuing
Executive
Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, Peterson - Cognitive Info Processing (CIP)
CASVE
Communication
identifying the career-related needs of the client
Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, Peterson - Cognitive Info Processing (CIP)
CASVE
Analysis
identifying the problem components and placing them in a conceptual framework
Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, Peterson - Cognitive Info Processing (CIP)
CASVE
Synthesis
formulating courses of action or alternatives
Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, Peterson - Cognitive Info Processing (CIP)
CASVE
Valuing
judging each action as to its potential for success or failure and impact. This is a prioritizing process
Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, Peterson - Cognitive Info Processing (CIP)
CASVE
Execution
developing plans and implementation strategies
Social cognitive theory and self-efficacy
Self-efficacy
individual’s expectations will influence whether a behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, how persistent the individual will be in the face of barriers
- an individual’s belief that they can perform some task or be successful in some endeavor
- these beliefs will influence choice, performance, persistance
Social cognitive theory and self-efficacy
Nancy Betz and Gail Hackett
these concepts explain gender differences in career choice
- society empowers males, through expectations, to pursue a wider range of occupations than females and this may help explain why more men pursue math and science majors and careers
Social cognitive theory and self-efficacy
Personal agency
individual’s ability and power to achieve objectives
Social cognitive theory and self-efficacy
Self-efficacy can be strengthened through learning experiences like:
- personal performance accomplishments
- vicarious learning
- social persuasion
- physiological states/reactions
The career counselor can structure these learning approaches to increase a client’s self-efficacy
Constructivism and contextualism
Constructivist approach
suggests that individuals construct their own reality or truth through their own way of organizing info
- this becomes a subjective phenomenon and focuses on how individuals extract meaning from their present situation
Constructivism and contextualism
Contextualism approach
implies that career development is a constant interplay of forces within the individual, within the environment, the interaction between the two
- cannot separate (remove) individuals from their environments (context) and the individuals’ perceptions and info organizing processes create their reality
Constructivism and contextualism
Goal for career counselor is to
encourage the client to make meaning of their situation
- because context is so important, unraveling (dissecting) events into very small pieces may be counterproductive and reduce the possibility for constructing personal meaning
Constructivism and contextualism
Focus of attention
actions which are cognitively and socially based
These actions are viewed from three perspectives:
- behavior which occurs
- internal state (affect)
- their social meaning
Mark Savickas
Proponent of postmodern career counseling approach based on career construction theory
the career counselor is not viewed as the expert with infallible scores from inventories but rather as an active agent in assisting career clients to make sense of their life and work in order to be successful and satisfied
Mark Savickas
Life design as a paradigm for career intervention
individuals construct careers through identifying and presenting small stories in response to a few questions
- these stories are deconstructed with the help of the counselor and then reconstructed
- using these small stories, the counselor co-constructs with the client a life portrait or identity narrative and assists the individual to construct this career story into a new episode
- focuses on contextual possibilities, nonlinear progress, dynamic processes, multiple perspectives, and personal patterns which represent the world of work today
- takes into account the changing nature of the workplace including the need for workers to be flexible, continuously employable, and have the ability to be temporary, contingent, casual, freelance, and self-employed
H.B. Gelatt
Focuses on the decision-making process and outlines a fairly traditional five step process
- recognize a need to make a decision
- collect data and look at courses of action
- besides looking at courses of action, examine potential outcomes/their probability
- attend to your value system
- evaluate and make a decision (choose), and the decision can be investigatory/permanent
H.B. Gelatt
Positive Uncertainty
his latest model of career decision making
- viewed as a whole-brained approach
- rational and intuitive components must be considered in decision making
H.B Gelatt
Gelatt Decision Model
information can be organized into three systems: predictive, value and decision
- predictive system: concerned with probable alternatives, actions, possibilities
- value system: concerned with one’s relative preferences regarding the outcomes
- decision system: provides rules and criteria for evaluating the outcome
Trait and Factor (Career Counseling Approach)
Developed by Frank Parsons (Father of Guidance)
- sometimes called actuarial/matching/structural approach (because it uses empirical statistical data)
- Parsons wrote Choosing a Vocation which was published in 1909
- this approach stimulated the development of assessment techniques (tests and inventories) and occupational info gathering
- first major and most durable theory of career choice
Critique of this theory: - oversimplified because it assumes that there is “a single job for life”
- assumes that an individual’s traits can be measured so accurately that the choice of occupation is a one-time process
- Computer programs often use trait and factor model
Trait and Factor (Career Counseling Approach)
Is trait-factor grounded in differential psychology?
YES!
Differential psychology = the study of individual differences
- The asummption is that humans are rational. When the proper info (e.g., from tests) is available, the individaul can make a proper/wise choice of career
Trait and Factor (Career Counseling Approach)
Trait-Factor
- study the individual (trait)
- survey occupations (factors)
- match the person with an occupation (using true reasoning)
Psychological testing one’s personality could be matched to an occupation stressing those particular personality traits
Trait and Factor (Career Counseling Approach)
E.G. Williamson (1930s) refined trait-factor approach
to him, the career counseling approach involved:
1. analysis
2. synthesis
3. diagnosis
4. prognosis
5. counseling
6. follow-up
Uses testing data from the Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales (aimed at enhancing the actuarial approach to career choice)
Study Tip: Minnesota and Matching
Know E.G. Williamson as spokesperson for Minnesota Viewpoint (expanded upon Parson’s model to create a theory of counseling that transcended vocational issues)
Trait and Factor (Career Counseling Approach)
Who are major proponents of trait and factor?
Parsons, Williamson (Minnesota Viewpoint), and Patterson
Sociological/Situational Models of Career Development
Sociological Models
there are sociological reasons why individuals choose the work that they do
- people choose what they know about (i.e., occupations family members may expose them to)
- ethnic group membership and cultural factors influence individuals toward and away from certain jobs and careers
- other factors which may influence occupational choice include risk behavior, work identity, career mobility
Sociological/Situational Models of Career Development
Situational model
environment and its opportunities influence the work an individual does
- local labor market conditions, educational/training and employment opportunities, as well as the mix of employers will impact what is available and often determines an individual’s career development
John Crites
developed comprehensive model of career counseling
The counselor makes three diagnoses of the career problem:
- differential - what are the problems
- dynamic - why have the problems occurred
- decisional - how are the problems being dealt with
John Crites
After diagnosis, Crites advocated:
client-centered and developmental counseling to begin with, later followed by the use of psychodynamic techniques such as interpretation, finally followed by trait-factor and behavioral approaches
John Crites
Crites is associated with study of
vocational maturity
- viewed it as a continuous developmental process moving through a series of stages and tasks
John Crites
Crites developed this inventory
Career Maturation Inventory
Decision Models
In applying a decision-making model to career development, several factors which might affect decision making are:
- risk taking style
- investment (by chooser, such as time/money/deferred gratification)
- personal values
- self-efficacy (belief that the individual can perform the behavior necessary)
Career Theory Limitations
Limitations
- many theories were developed in 1950s-1960s and from small samples (young, white, middle-class males)
- many samples were college-educated (excluding non-whites and women)
- early career theories have limited generalizability to women, minorities, other ages
- some other issues: workplace trends, women in labor market, increasing multicultural population, single family homes, dual-earner families
- most good career theories are still evolving
Undecided
implies the individual needs more info and then can/will make a decision
- a state of being
Indecisiveness
ongoing trait of the individual which implies that even with more info, the individual has problems making a decision
- true beyond career domain
Undecided vs. indecisiveness
different counseling approaches are indicated based on whether individual is undecided vs. indecisive
- with indecisive client, personal counseling may be necessary before career counseling is helpful
Career development
lifelong process in which we develop values, skills, interests, knowledge of the world of work
in this process, we also make decisions and implement these decisions through education/work
Career-Related Definitions
Job
one person in one position doing a set of tasks
Career-Related Definitions
Occupation
definable work activity found in many locations (e.g., counseling, welding)
Career-Related Definitions
Career (narrow)
a series of jobs and occupations one does
Career-Related Definitions
Career (middle)
the education, training, work experience, and related professional activities associated with one’s occupations
Career-Related Definitions
Career (broad - from Super)
all of the work and other life roles one engages in
Career-Related Definitions
Lifestyle
the person’s orientation and preference in regard to career, family, leisure, place of residence, work climate, overall style of life
Portfolio career
many workers are engaged in more than one line of work at the same time
- these jobs may or may not require similar skills
Encore career
many retired individuals by choice or necessity are returning to work
- typically, they do not go back to their pre-retirement employer and thus do a ‘work encore’ in some other kinds of employment
Compensatory vs. spillover theory of leisure
Leisure includes
periods of time in which an individual engages in activities/pursuits chosen freely such as relaxation, hobbies, sports, travel, other outdoor/indoor activities
Compensatory vs. spillover theory of leisure
Do you compensate or spillover?
Compensate (in terms of using skills/abilities/interests) for what you cannot do on the job - so you do very different things off the job
Spillover into your leisure - so you do the same kinds of activities using the same skills
Career guidance
assists individuals in understanding and acting upon self-knowledge and knowledge of opportunities in work, education, leisure, and to develop decision-making skills
Career counseling
emphasis is on career development of an individual with special attention to values and atittudes, in a dynamic environment with a focus on self-understanding, career info, career planning, decision making
Career counseling is personal counseling
clients are holistic with problems/concerns that are multifaceted and overlap in several domains of life including home, work, family
Integrating career and mental health counseling
W.R. Sterner argued for the integration of career planning with mental health counseling in 2016
- mental healh counselors’ focus is typically on mental health and substance abuse issues while career development/employment issues may not be viewed as critical
- rather than viewing clients holistically, mental health agencies are often more concerned about a reductionistic viewpoint imposed by insurance
Calhoun and Hayden in 2019 NCDA Career Convergence article argue that
researchers should broaden their perspectives to inform counselors of the overlap between mental health and career development
- this lack of integration is found on many college campuses where career services often exist separately from mental health services
Career development with clients with trauma history
in 2019 NCDA Career Convergence article, Krista Schmidt addresses issues career/mental health counselors must be aware of when working with clients who have a history of trauma (70% of adults have such a history - including actual/perceived physical/emotional/sexual harm and/or poverty/community violence/unsafe living circumstances/food scarcity)
- trauma may affect all aspects of life including career development
- trauma reactions may affect perceptions pertinent to meriting a position/promotion/skills in developing an accurate resume or portfolio
- self-concept issues may impact perceptions of one’s skills, abilities, goal formation
Schmidt argues for following counselor strategies in career counseling with clients with trauma history:
- be transparent - upfront, detailed with clear expectations
- establish trust in the relationship - clients need safety in the relationship. do not assume what client needs
- ask permission - don’t strip power/control from the client. ex. ask permission to use assessments
- focus on the here and now - focus on concrete, tangible needs of the client. Stay solution-focused
Career Counseling Process
Establish a relationship
career counseling is built upon a relationship between a career counselor and a client. In addition to helpful personality characteristics of the counselor, certain conditions experienced by the client in career counseling will facilitate sharing of issues with the career counselor
Career Counesling Process
Problem identification
as a result of this sharing, the career counselor and client should develop a better understanding of the issues or problems confronting the client
Without this info, career counseling will lack direction and focus
Career Counesling Process
Assessment
continuous process and occurs from the moment the career counselor meets the client
- assessment might include the use of standardized and nonstandardized instruments
- some level of assessment continues until termination
Career Counesling Process
Provide info
relies on the career counselor as expert to provide pertinent info
- focus here is in informing the client of possibilities, opportunities, resources helpful in addressing their specific career problems
- often, much of this info can be gathered by the client with appropriate direction, rather than given to the client
Career Counesling Process
Decision making
with the help of the career counselor, the client has identified the problem, participated in the assessment process, and has gathered/been given info
Career Counesling Process
Implementation and follow-up
this will be highly idiosyncratic depending on individual, their circumstances, and the educational/employment/other opportunities found in the environment
- follow-up with client should occur as agreed upon
Career counseling and individual differences
counselor must be sensitive to the unique characteristics presented by each client
they must fight the natural tendency to stereotype a client because they come from this ethnic group, has that disability, etc.
Career counseling and individual differences
Diversity
gender, SES, age, spirituality, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation
- career counselors must be committed to self-reflection, and aware of the personal, social, occupational oppression that many individuals have experienced
Career counseling and individual differences
Adults in career transition
- identify issues; values/needs may be changing
- skills may be obselete; retraining considered
- physical capacities may be changing
- family structure; empty nest issues
- leisure, lifestyle, pre-retirement issues
- may lack info resources and job-seeking skills
Career counseling and individual differences
Cultural diversity
- the career counselor must be sensitive to the various contexts (individual, family, culture) of the client
- perceptions of power, work, time, counseling will vary across cultures
- career counselor must be sensitive to/respect the extent to which a client comes from a collectivistic vs individualistic cultural framework
- career counseling effectiveness is enhanced as the counselor uses procedures/techniques and defines counseling goals consistent with cultural values
- level of acculturation signifies the extent to which an individual has learned/adopted the beliefs and world-view of another culture
- to understand cross-cultural client, career counselor must be aware of the historical and socio-political environment that has influenced the culture
- discrimination and stereotyping characterize what many individuals of cultural groups experience in the labor market
- individuals from minority groups area characterized as possessing less vocational info than majority group members
- counselors must encourage/support the consideration and entry of individuals in occupations nontraditional to that cultural group
Career counseling and individual differences
People with disabilities
- most disabilities are not perceptible
- functional limitations and the person’s adjustment to them need to be determined
- self-concept and social/interpersonal skills should be assessed
- independent living/coping skills may be an issue
- counselor advocacy role with potential employers may be necessary
- state vocational rehab services offer specialized assessment/placement
- counselors must know the ADA provisions and job accommodation possibilities
Career counseling and individual differences
LGBT
- major conflict may be whether to come out and the potential repercussions on the job
- discrimination by some employers (especially for certain jobs such as caretakers/teachers) is still very strong
- many employers do not recognize same-sex partners for benefit purpose
- there is no federal law addressing employment discrimination based on sexual orientation/gender identity
Expressed interests
those spoken/reported
Manifested interests
determined by examining what a person is studying (college major), previous jobs held, what activities the person likes
Tested interests
those measured via inventories or tests
Testing/Assessment in Career Counseling
must be sensitive to the instrument’s appropriateness for that client’s cultural and linguistic context
Is that test or inventory functionally equivalent within that culture as for the culture for which the instrument was originally designed?
Testing/Assessment in Career Counseling
Aptitude
- O*Net Ability Profiler (formerly, General Aptitude Test Battery, GATB)
- Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)
- Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT)
- each of these measures several aptitudes and many are the same on each instrument such as verbal reasoning, mathematical reasoning, spatial perception
Testing/Assessment in Career Counseling
Achievement
- Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS)
- Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)
- American College Test (ACT)
- Graduate Record Examination (GRE)
Testing/Assessment in Career Counseling
Interest
- Strong Interest Inventory (SII)
- Self Directed Search (SDS)
- Kuder Career Search Planning System
- O*Net Interest Profiler
- COPSystem 3C (measures interests, abilities, values)
- Campbell Interest and Skill Survey
Testing/Assessment in Career Counseling
Personality
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Testing/Assessment in Career Counseling
Values
- O*Net Work Importance Profiler
- Super’s Work Value Inventory - Revised
- Minnesota Importance Questionnaire
World-of-Work Map
method of organizing families of occupations and was developed by ACT
- incorporates the Holland codes by creating a circle of occupations organized by the primary tasks of working with People, Data, Things, Ideas
- ACT identified 44 career areas (families of occupations), and using their career exploration materials, over 500 specific occupations can be identified as well as hundreds of college majors
Computer-Assisted Career Guidance Systems
Computer-Assisted Career Guidance Systems
designed to complement or supplement career counselors and not to replace them
Computer-Assisted Career Guidance Systems
SIGI 3 (System of Interactive Guidance and Info)
DISCOVER
These two systems have extensive assessment components measuring interests, values, skills
- they do college major matching, provide guidance activities, occupational info
Computer-Assisted Career Guidance Systems
Magellan 7
a career assessment program for high school, middle school, special education students
- includes many assessments, surveys, job video clips
Computer-Assisted Career Guidance Systems
CHOICES
Focus 2
have limited assessment components, but have very good info files covering occupations and colleges
- many states have designed their own Career Info System (CIS) which includes assessment, occupational search activities, occupational info, educational info
Computer (Internet) resources
use of the internet in career development activities is critical
- clients should be encouraged to use all technology including social media sites rather than be overcautious and not use such sites
- social media can be used to present the client’s qualifications, interests, goals, activities which enhance employability
- tech media can be used to explore job openings, research prospective employers, provide info to potential employers, do job interview, network with those who might be helpful about career possibilities
Computer (Internet) resources
Online brand
starting in high school and continuing to college, individuals should be concerned and develop an online brand
- online image or reputation which will be of interest to employers
- such things as academic experiences, volunteer activities, awards, ideas, travel can all help develop personal brand
O*NET
(Occupational Info Network)
free comprehensive data base of worker attributes and job characteristics
- info and descriptors on nearly 1,000 occupations covering the entire US economy are provided
- its three major components are: Find Occupations, Skills Search, Crosswalk
- replaces the Dictionary of Occupational Titles
O*NET has developed a number of assessment and career exploration tools
- Ability Profiler
- Interest Profiler
- O*NET Computerized Interest Profiler
- Work Importance Profiler
- Work Importance Locator
Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)
O*NET replaced DOT, but it’s still available
- about 12,000 different jobs are defined
- there are a total of over 20,000 different titles of jobs in the document
- contains occupational descriptions including duties, tasks, tools used
- each occupation has a nine digit code number
- the first three digits identify the general category, division, group of occupations
- the middle three digits represent data-people-things. The lower the number (zero is lowest) the greater the involvement of that job with data, people, things
Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH)
national document published by the US Department of Labor
- is published every two years
- contains job trend data, employment projections for the next ten years, jobs of the future, occupational info, salary data, etc.
- it is the document most used by career counselors as determined by a national survey
- entire OOH is online
Hidden Job Market
estimated that approx. 80% of jobs are not advertised or generally known
- these jobs are most apt to be identified through networking
- most employers now list position vacancies on their websites. Failure to examine these employer websites will decrease valuable job-hunting info
Outplacement counseling
career counseling provided to workers of an organization who are to be terminated
- outpatient counseling might include assessment, career counseling, job seeking skills development, job placement assistance
Retirement counseling
individuals who retire may transition to a number of new and different roles
- some may find that their circumstances do not allow them to continue retirement and may be fored to return to employment
- retirement counseling assists individuals in their transitions including examination of circumstances, options, fears, possibilities which will prevail following employment
- this might include addressing family, home, leisure, employment, social, medical, financial, legal concerns
Career education
originally, was a strategy of infusing career development concepts into existing kindergarten through high school curricula
- promotes career awareness and development concepts with school children via classroom activities, guest speakers, field trips, internships, part time employment for older students
Career Education Goals
- career awareness (elementary level)
- career exploration (middle/junior high level)
- career orientation (high school level)
- career prepartion (high school level)
Displaced homemaker
has traditionally been a woman who is a former homemaker whose children may be in school or gone. Looking for employment and may be divorced or widowed
Issues may include: lack of info about labor market, poor job-seeking skills, no support system, shaky self-concept
Dislocated worker
anyone who becomes unemployed because of obselete or no longer needed skills, downsizing, rightisizing, company relocation, shutdown, high unemployment
Potential conflicts for dual-career or dual-earner couples are:
- home and children chores are not equitable (asymmetry of roles)
- whose job takes precendence if a career move is offered
- time for leisure
- the woman may make more money than the man
Identity tension line
the comfort area each sex has based on sex role socialization
- going beyond (doing opposite sex chores) may create tension
- research indicates that when the woman becomes the second earner, she typically maintains the majority of her original household and children chores in addition to new job
A variety of family issues influence the workplace:
- families are forming later and fewer children are the norm
- single heads-of-household are common and, in part, reflective of the high divorce rate
- the ‘traditional’ family of father working and mother staying at home to care for children is no longer the norm
- the acceptance of cohabitation before/instead of marriage has delayed or precluded marriage
- as more women are entering traditionally male jobs, more men are entering traditionally female jobs. This is especially true of those males already disadvantaged including black, Hispanic, less educated, poor, immigrant men
Gender and other issues
- the number of women in the labor market is about 55% of all working-age women. many work part-time
- women make up about 47% of the workforce and that percentage is not expected to increase significantly through the next 20 years
- women earn about 82% of what men earn with even greater equality among younger workers. However, more women than men work in part-time jobs which pay less
- women are earning more undergrad and master’s degrees than men and nearly as many degrees as men in law/medicine
- women still assume primary responsibility for children as well as taking care of sick/elderly parents
Glass ceiling
the set of restraints, typically imposed by men, which impact women’s (or any other group’s) ability to move up the career ladder within an organization
Family of origin issues are sometimes expressed
in occupational choice and workplace behavior
Other Workforce Trends
Issues with Economy
even with the current official national unemployment rate (those seeking work) at about 4%, millions of additional workers are not viewed as employed
- some have been ‘discouraged’ and may no longer be seeking employment
- others may be in the gig economy
- one consequence of an uncertain employment situation is the increase in worker stress
- another source of stress may be wage stagnation - the demand for employee assistance services by workers has increased over past years
Other Workforce Trends
Gig economy
many workers often viewed as unemployed may work in gig economy
- may have temporary contracts, self-employed, do freelance work
Other Workforce Trends
Occupational changes
- fastest growing occupational clusters during next ten years will be solar/wind installers, health care/personal assistance, professional/related occupations
- occupations with the most job openings will be personal/home health care aides, software developers, medical assistants
- slowest growing occupational clusters will be locomotive firers, respiratory therapy techs, parking enforcement workers, word processors, typists
- federal employment will decrease, but state/local gov. employment will increase
Other Workforce Trends
Relationship of education to income
there is a strong positive relationship between level of education and income including lifetime earnings
- there is a strong negative relationship between level of education and unemployment
Other Workforce Trends
Unemployment
experienced differentially depending on cultural/ethnic group
- from lowest to highest unemployment: white males, white females, Hispanic males, Hispanic females, Black females, Black males
Other Workforce Trends
Outsourcing
cost of labor is cheaper in other countries so many US companies find it economically rewarding to shift some or all of their operations out of the US
Other Workforce Trends
Robots
with the current shortage of workers due to the low rate of unemployment, many small and medium manufacturing firms are finding robots fill important positions
- robots are less expensive than humans, and are more reliable/efficient
COVID-19 and workplace
- millions of people suffered unemployment, some temporary/permanent, primarily in the service/leisure/travel
- millions are now working remotely
- many companies will continue remote-work concept
- workplaces will redesign spaces to mitigate pandemic influences
- many employers are using robots
- employee interactions/human relations/supervision/management functions are changing in response to remote working
- remote working results in less commuting
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA)
federal law passed in 2014
- consolidates programs for employment and training, adult education, programs under the 1973 Rehab Act
- replaced the Workforce Investment Act of 1998
54% of all marriages are dual-wage earner marriages (both partners are working) compared to 1950 stat of 20.4%
more problems related to household chores, responsibilities, competition between partners
Avocation
leisure activity that one engages in for pleasure rather than money
80% Four-Fifths Rule
the hiring rate for minorities is divided by the figure for nonminorities. If the quotient is less than 80% (4/5), then adverse impact is evident.
ex. A firm’s selection process is such at 60 of employees hired is African American while 80 are white. Does the selection process display adverse impact?
60/80 = 75%. Yes, it has adverse impact
JOC
memory pneumonic to recall order from specific to general:
Job: given position or similar positions within an organization (ex. clerk at ABC company)
Occupation: similar jobs occupied via different people in different settings (ex. psychotherapists)
Career: depicts a person’s lifetime position plus leisure
Bordin
psychoanalytic approach
- career choices could be used to solve unconscious conflicts
- difficulties relating to job choice are indicative of neurotic symptoms
Structural theory =
personality theory!
(ex. Holland theory)
Nancy Schlossberg
focused on adult career development
- behavior in adult years is primarily determined by social rather than biological factors
- behavior can either be a function of one’s life or one’s age at other times
- sex differences are actually more powerful than age or stage differences
- adults continually experience transitions which require adaptation and self-assessment
- identity, intimacy, generativity are recurring themes in adulthood
Tiedeman and O’Hara decision-making theory
refers to periods of anticipation and implementation/adjustment:
Two part process:
- anticipation stage: individual imagines them in a given career
- implementation/accommodation/induction stage: person engages in reality testing regarding their expectations concerning the occupation
All decision-making theories contend that
the individual has the power to choose from the various career options
These career theorists used the work of Albert Bandura (social learning theory)
Krumboltz, Mitchell, Jones
- four factors impact career choice: genetics and special abilities; environment and special skills; learning experiences; task-approach problem-solving skills
Bandura and social learning theory
role of modeling in acquisition of new behaviors
- people learn from both consequences of their own actions and observing consequences of others
Vicarious learning: learning which takes place from watching others
Realistic job preview (RJP)
the student (usually in college) would contact a worker in the field and then interview the worker
Guided imagery
effective for adults and adolescents
can be implemented by having the client imagine a day in the future working in the job or even receiving an award for outstanding performance in the position
Human capital theory
individuals secure training and education to get the best possible income
- doesn’t seem valid when applied to folks of lower SES
Accident theory
chance factors influence one’s career
- ex. a student likes their history teacher so they become a history teacher
Status attainment theory
the child will eventually secure a job commensurate with their family status
- does not work with a child who has low/high career aspirations
Contrast effect
an interviewer’s impression of an interviewee is often affected by previous interviewees
- ex. a typical applicant would look more impressive if they were interviewed after a string of ill-qualified applicants (and vice versa)
Compensatory effect
a worker compensates or makes up for things they cannot do on the job
- ex. a librarian who has to be quiet on the job may be really loud not working
Segmentation
when work and family life are kept separate
Spillover
the individual’s work spills over into their time off from the job
- ex. person talks about work with others and engages in activities similar to work during periods of leisure
Recency effect
occurs when a rater’s judgment of an employee reflects primarily their most recent performance
Leniency/strictness bias
occurs when a rater tends to give employees very high/lenient or very low/strict ratings while avoiding middle range
(the opposite is central tendency bias)
Lifestyle
overall balance of work, leisure, family, social activities
Kuder Career Planning System (KCPS)
appropriate for K-12, postsecondary, adults
offers career planning and online edcuation for any age bracket
- Kuder Galaxy program = for elementary students
- Kuder Navigator = secondary students
- Kuder Journey = postsecondary, adults
Dual-earner vs dual-career
Some exams will split hairs between these!
Dual-earner = job positions where moving up the line is not possible/at best minimal
Dual-career = advancement is possible
Aptitude test
measures your potential for capturing skills with proper training/experience (think LSAT measuring how good a lawyer you COULD be, not how good a lawyer you are!)
Achievement test
measures your skill at the present moment
Job analysis
examines tasks, duties, skills, required education, safety issues to create a job description/job specifications
Job evaluation
rates the value of the job within the organization to decide what it should pay
