SOC200 - Ethics (Chapter 3) Flashcards
Ethics
research ethics not confined to any particular stage in research process diagram
ethical considerations supposed to be inherent in all steps
not manditory to be valid
follow certain ethical protocol – to be accepted by other scientists
Defining Ethical Research
principle of ethics in research: whether you are being moral in decisions you make about your collection, analysis, and reporting of data
involves balancing benefit of knowledge against benefit of being “moral” in acquisition of that knowledge
Defining Ethical Research
notions of morality are variable (change with time, culture, ideologies, generations, individuals), no absolute definition of what ethical research is
common accepted criteria
contextuality of “morally acceptable” behaviour
notions of morality variable: contextuality over time + geography
morals do evolve over time
ethics is relative – cultures have diff definitions
General Agreement about what “Ethical Research” is
Despite lack of universally accepted definition, research currently agrees that ethically conducted research strives towards:
Voluntary Participation
nobody should be forced to participate against their will, even if results of forced participation could benefit all of humanity
even if there are no risks/with benefits
Field Research: often observing without them knowing so they don’t modify behaviour - No consent
Prisoners: might feel they benefit if they participate – have to make it clear – no diff in treatment
No Harm to Subjects
all forms of harm, mental/physical
sometimes not always obvious at first
Personal distress – guilt
Informed consent: made fully aware of risks – might affect results – more prepared
What makes ppl happy in marriage – ppl started divorcing
No Harm to Subjects
Emotional/psychological distress: temporary/chronic
participant facing an aspect of themselves they are uncomfortable with (confronted by fear of public speaking, phobia of spiders, being cruel to others)
Anonymity
neither researchers nor readers can identify given response within respondent
diff to maintain, more stringent if doing interviews
Code is protected legally – researchers, lawyers, journalists
Anonymity
often achieved through surveys that can be returned without any identification number (through mail or internet
Confidentiality
lower standard of protecting participant’s identity researcher can identify person’s responses but promises not to do so publicly
important when researching sensitive subjects
No Deception
researcher should not misidentify themself and/or purpose of research without compelling scientific/administrative concerns
debriefing: nature of research, make sure they are ok + correct any problems – get back to previous state (therapy)
Maybe something they don’t feel immediately/debriefing may not be able to fix
No Deception
Difficult to do in practice when validity of the research may depend on deception
If deception is unavoidable, researchers may often use a technique known as debriefing
Analysis and Reporting
means being honest + open about shortcomings of study (quality of measures, data collected, ways of interpreting findings, + limiting study to aspects that you can be open + honest about
Analysis and Reporting
Often difficult to do in “Publish/Perish” setting of academia
because limitations may be known later
Researchers often compelled to manipulate so they get result that’s interesting
Origin of Ethical Research Guidelines in Canada
In 1994, 3 major granting bodies in Canada formed working group to create standard of ethics for doing research:
Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR)
National Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC)
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC)
Origin of Ethical Research Guidelines in Canada
Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCPS) (pg 65-67)
2nd edition of standard was published in 2010. To receive funding, researchers + their institutions must follow principles in this statement
Origins of Ethics Standards in Research
Has to submit application to tri-council: how they meet + exceed standards for ethical research
motives for developing formal ethics procedures in research stem largely from a history of medical research that would now be considered unethical and illegal
Origins of Ethics Standards in Research
However, the scale and extremeness of medical experiments by Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan that were discovered after their defeat in 1945 pushed the issue of ethics standards in medical research to the forefront
Origins of Ethics Standards in Research
formalized through document inspired by allied trial of Nazi Doctors in 1947, outlining what constitutes legitimate medical research (The Nuremburg Code), succeeded in 1974 by Declaration of Helsinki
Absence of coersion, consent, properly formalized, treat them nicely
What were Doctors in these Axis Countries Doing during WWII?
Experiments conducted by SS Doctors in Nazi Germany
Subjects: Jews of all ages, Roma, Soviet POWs + disabled non-Jewish Germans sent to concentration camps
What were Doctors in these Axis Countries Doing during WWII?
experiments on twins
bone, muscle, and nerve transplantation experiments ▫ head injury experiments
freezing and hypothermia experiments
malaria, mustard gas, and gangrene experiments
Experiments conducted by Doctors for Imperial Japan
Unit 731 based in Harbin in Northeast (Japanese Occupied) China
Subjects: Chinese, Russian, SE Asian Pacific Islanders, Allied POWs
Vivisection without anaesthesia
Experiments conducted by Doctors for Imperial Japan
Injections with diseases, disguised as vaccinations
Weapons testing
US General MacArthur secretly granted immunity to physicians of Unit 731 in exchange for providing America
EXAMPLES OF UNETHICAL RESEARCH IN POST WWII NORTH AMERICA
Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (1932-1972) run by US Public Health Service
Studied natural progression of syphilis among black men
were never told they had syphilis, nor were they treated
for it even after effective cure was developed in 1947
Deliberately withheld treatment for syphilis to see its degradation effects
Project MkUltra
mind control experiments conducted by CIA
Administered mind altering substances (LSD) + used other brainwashing techniques to unsuspecting but vulnerable populations of US + Canadian Citizens
Project MkUltra
program recruited former Nazi scientists, some of whom studied torture + brainwashing + several who had been identified + prosecuted as war criminals during Nuremberg Trials
Project imported to Montreal Psychiatric Hospital by Dr. Donald Ewen Cameron
Ppl killed themselves because they thought they were going crazy
Canadian Nutrition Experiments Using Malnourished Native Children
Aboriginal children in residential schools in Canada who were already malnourished, were deliberately starved for years
Canadian Nutrition Experiments Using Malnourished Native Children
Instead of recommending increase in support researchers decided that isolated, dependent, hungry ppl would be ideal subjects for tests on effects of different diets
Not much was learned from these studies
Popular Social Science Examples
Philip Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment: some prisoners, some guards – out of hand
Stanley Milgram’s experiment on obedience to authority figures: obedience, ppl willing to do bad stuff if they were not shouldering blame
Laud Humphreys’ Tearoom trade: analysis of anonymous homosexual acts taking place in public toilets: got their license plate, pretended to be a voyeur, blackmailed
Popular Social Science Examples
Scheper-Hughes: covert ethnography of an international underground organs market connecting third-world organ sellers to New York, New Jersey + Israel
undercover buyers
Ethical Issues related to Research Design (Chapter 4)
Mostly centres around observation methods involving direct interaction with participants: Issues concerning voluntary participation + consent, Need for a consent form, Need to inform participants about goals of study
A lot times researchers cut corners
Can come back to haunt them if they don’t think through it
Ethical Issues related to Research Design (Chapter 4)
Consent from parents if participants are minors
Right to privacy, dignity, protection against harm
How will confidentiality be maintained?
All of these factors must be balanced against researcher’s desire for data
Ethical Issues in Sampling (Chapter 6)
Many of ethics surrounding sampling parallel issue of ethics in data collection:
For non-probability sampling (snowball, convenience samples, purposive samples):
Main ethical issues concern how to deal with vulnerable populations (deception, voluntary participation, no harm to subjects, confidentiality)
Ethical Issues in Sampling (Chapter 6)
For probability sampling: additional issue of being academically truthful about integrity of your probability sample for purposes of generalizability
ppl are from/reporting on vulnerable – show a lot of concern about dignity, confidentiality, anonymity
Probability: truthful about integrity, are they generalizable
