SENSORY ORGANS AND NERVOUS SYSTEM Flashcards
Structures of the eye
- conjunctiva
- sclera
- cornea
- choroid
- pupil
- iris
- lens
- retina
conjunctiva
a clear membrane that covers the outside of the front of the eyeball and the inside surface of the eyelids. It isn’t part of the eyeball itself.
extrinsic
outer
sclera
the outermost layer of the eyeball, or “the white of the eye”. It protects the eye and serves as the surface to which the extrinsic (outer) muscles attach.
Cornea
the clear area of the sclera. It allows light to pass through. It’s clear because it has no blood vessels, and it consists of five layers of flat cells. There are pain and touch receptors in the cornea.
Choroid coat
The middle layer of the eyeball. This is the vascular structure of the eye that provides blood and oxygen through blood vessels.
In humans, this coat is a dark color because of melanin.
The color causes minimal reflection of light within the eye so the clarity of sight is maintained.
Pupil
Small, circular opening in front of the choroid coat.
It appears as a black dot in the middle of the eye and lets light pass through.
Iris
Surrounds the pupil.
contains intrinsic, or inner, muscles that adjust the size of the pupil according to the amount of light in the environment.
In bright light, the muscles constrict the pupils to restrict the amount of light passing through.
In dim light, the muscles dilate the pupils to allow more light to pass through.
In stressful situations, the sympathetic nervous system causes these muscles to dilate the pupils.
Lens
The durable crystalline disc behind the iris and the pupil that focuses light on the retina.
The lens is biconvex, which means that it’s a disk with a convex surface of both sides.
The anterior surface, toward the front of the eye, has slightly less of a curve than the posterior surface, toward the back of the eye; however, these curves change with age.
biconvex
means that it’s a disk with a convex surface of both sides (it bulges out on both sides)
anterior surface
toward the front of the eye, has slightly less of a curve than the posterior surface, toward the back of the eye;
Fibrous tissue called suspensory ligaments connect the lens to the ___?
ciliary muscles
The space between the lens and the structures in front of it is called the
anterior chamber
The anterior chamber is filled with a watery fluid called the aqueous humor. You can remember this because “aqueous” means “watery”. The fluid is continuously replenished by the blood vessels behind the iris.
aqueous humor
Watery fluid that fills the anterior chamber. Continuosly replenished by the blood vessels behind the iris.
Posterior chamber
The space or cavity behind the lens.
The posterior cavity is filled with vitreous humor, a transparent, gelatinlike substance.
This structure maintains the spherical shape of the eyeball and aids in focusing light onto the retina.
Retina
The innermost layer of the eyeball, but it doesn’t extend to the front part of the eye. It detects light and transmits signals back to the brain; the optic nerve sends the signals back to the occipital lobe in the brain, which interprets them.
Rod cells
Specialized cells in the retina.
Sensitive to dim light and are used for peripheral vision.
Cone cells
Specialized cells in the retina.
Are sensitive to bright light and color.
Pale optic disc
The part of the retina around the optic nerve.
This area doesn’t contain any rod or cone cells, and without rods or cones, there’s no visual perception; thus, this area is known as the “blind spot”.
The ear is divided into three parts:
external ear or outer ear
middle ear or tympanic cavity
inner ear or labyrinth
pinna or auricle
The outer part that looks like a cup of rubbery tissue.
Collects sounds from the environment and focuses them into the auditory canal.
auditory canal
The wax-producing tunnel that curves into the temporal bone and ends at the eardrum.
Many short hairs and glands lie across the auditory canal. The glands secrete cerumen, or earwax.
The hairs and wax protect the ear by preventing dirt particles and insects from getting inside.
eardrum or tympanic membrane
The tight membrane that transmits the vibrations of sound waves from the auditory canal to the middle ear. The eardrum separates the outer ear from the middle ear.
tympanic membrane
earddrum
Function of the middle ear
After the sound waves strike the eardrum, the middle ear intensifies and transmits the sound. While the external ear conducts sound through the air, the middle ear conducts sound through its three bones- the malleus, the incus, and the stapes.
As sound enters the middle ear, the tiny bones work to transmit the sound and amplify it. The malleus is attached to the eardrum. As sound strikes the eardrum, the malleus vibrates, causing the incus and the stapes to vibrate.
The three bones of the middle ear
Malleus
Incus
Stapes
Eustachian tube
Connects the middle ear to the pharynx, or throat, which explains the frequent spread of throat infection to the ear.
The Eustachian tube also equalizes the air pressure on both sides of the eardrum.
This tube is usually closed, but it opens when you swallow or yawn.
Inner ear
The most complicated part of the ear. In addition to its role in hearing, the inner ear also helps to maintain a sense of equilibrium and balance. Due to its complex, maze like design, the inner ear resembles a bony labyrinth.
Three structures of the inner ear :
Cochlea
Semicircular Canals
Vestibule
Cochlea
Bony, snail-shaped, filled with fluid and contains a compartment called the organ of Corti, which is lined with nerve endings.
Organ of Corti
Sensitive element of the inner ear and houses about 20,000 sensory hair cells; each hair cell has 40 to 100 hairs.
Tactile receptors
Bring you information about pressure, touch, and vibration. They’re located throughout your skin but are more abundant in areas such as the fingertips and the lips.
Temperature receptors
Enable you to sense changes in temperature. Although they’re found throughout the body, they’re concentrated in the lips, the mouth, and the anus.
Pain receptors
Located throughout the skin and within certain internal organs. Some organs, however, are poorly supplied with pain receptors, making it difficult for you to determine where it actually hurts. An example of that is a headache; headaches can be felt due to the pain in the brain, the skull, the neck, or the blood vessels.
Proprioception or kinesthesia
The sense of positioning.
The receptors are located within muscles, joints, and tendons. Once the receptors detect a stimulus such as pain, pressure, or touch, the stimulus is converted into an electrical signal or nerve impulse. The signal then travels the nerve pathways to the brain, where the sensation is interpreted. After the brain interprets the stimulus, it sends orders back along the nerve pathways to the organs and/or other muscles to react appropriately to the receptor.
Special Sense Organs
Eyes
Ears
Nose
Taste Buds
How do special sense organs function?
They receive sensory signals and transmit them to the brain by way of cranial nerves. Although sensory organs don’t appear to be similar to nerves, they can be considered appendages of the nervous system. Each of these organs has unique sensory cells that pick up data and then transmit it to the brain for decoding of the collected data.
How many different smells can the nose detect?
About 10,000
What enables your nose to smell ?
A highly specialized collection of nervous tissue, the olfactory bulb (or olfactory epithelium) enables your nose to smell.
The part of the brain that analyzes scents works closely with memory and emotion.
That’s why the sense of smell can evoke powerful feelings and memories.
Olfactory nerves are never replaced; once they’re damaged, the sense of smell is impaired forever.
They also tire quickly, which explains why a pungent odor seems to dull after it has been sensed for a while.
papillae
bumpy, hair-like projections on the tongue
Taste buds function
Clusters of taste buds surround the papillae and also cover the roof of your mouth.
The taste buds themselves aren’t visible.
For a taste to be stimulated, the food must be solubilized.
The mouth does this by providing saliva through the salivary ducts. The stimulus of food prompts the ducts to release saliva so the food can start to be dissolved. Specialized cells in the taste buds, gustatory cells, can detect the basic sensations of sour, salty, bitter, and sweet.
The information is then converted to impulses and transmitted to the brain.
The sweet and salty tastes are sensed mainly at the tip of the tongue.
The sour taste is sensed at the sides of the tongue, and the bitter taste is sensed at the back of the tongue.
Glaucoma
AA disease caused by increased pressure in the eye, which results in a damaged optic nerve. Increased pressure may be caused by factors such as high blood pressure, obesity migraines, and heredity.
Since there are usually no symptoms until there’s a decrease in vision, annual eye exams are extremely important to detect this disease during the early stages.
If untreated, glaucoma can lead to blindness.
The most common form of glaucoma is called open-angle glaucoma.
Open-angle glaucoma is treatable with medications, Lasik, and surgery.
Eyedrops commonly used to treat glaucoma:
Pilocarpine (Isopto Carpine)
Carbachol (Isopto Carbachol)
Latanoprost (Xalatan)
Travoprost (Travatan)
Timolol (Timoptic)
Dorzolamide (Trusopt)
Betaxolol (Betoptic)
Acetazolamide (Diamox)
Cataract
A cloudiness of the eye’s lens due to increased age.
This disease may be caused by trauma or radiation exposure. Symptoms include blurred vision, faded colors, and sensitivity to light.
Common risk factors include increased age, diabetes, smoking, prolonged exposure to sunlight, and alcohol.
A mainstay of the cataract treatment is the surgical removal of the cataract lens and replacement with a new lens. Cataract surgery is a minor outpatient surgery performed routinely to treat cataracts. Medicated eye drops are normally used prior to surgery to dilate pupils and post-surgery for inflammation and infection.
Eye Drops that dilate pupils are called
mydriatic
The following is a list of mydriatic medications:
Tropicamide (Mydriacyl)
Atropine (Isopto Atropine)
Cyclopentolate (Cyclogyl)
Phenylephrine (Mydfrin)
The following eyedrops are used for inflammation and infection:
Bacitracin, Neomycin, and Polymyxin B (Polysporin)
Ketorolac (Acular)
Conjunctivitis
The inflammation or irritation of the conjunctiva, is the most common infection of the eye.
Conjunctivitis is also referred to as “pink eye”.
The infection can be caused by a virus, bacteria, or an allergen.
The common cold, an upper respiratory infection, or a sore throat may lead to conjunctivitis. Symptoms include swollen, scratchy, red, and extremely watery eyes.
The following antibiotic eye drops are commonly used to treat “pink eye” or conjunctivitis:
Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
Ciprofloxacin and dexamethasone (Ciprodex)
Tobramycin (Tobrex)
Trimethoprim/polymyxin (Polytrim)
external otitis
Outer ear infections “swimmer’s ear”
otitis media
middle ear infections
Otitis media is a common type of ear infection in children that’s often treated with oral antibiotics.
Cerumen
Earwax
If your ear produces too much earwax…..
It can collect in the auditory canal. When this happens, the cerumen absorbs or blocks the passage of sound waves.
This blockage impairs hearing. Treatment for this includes irrigation of the ear canal and the use of lubricating drops. Carbamide peroxide (Debrox), over-the-counter (OTC) eardrops, is commonly used to remove excess earwax.
Which medications have to be sterile, ear or eye?
Eye
Discard opened eye drops after how many days?
28 days
The average human brain weighs about?
3 lbs
The brain processes information about our
Heart rate
blood pressure
respiration rate
temperature
muscle tone
blood chemistry
The four major anatomical parts of the brain:
cerebrum
diencephalon
cerebellum
brain stem
The largest and most complicated part of the brain is the
cerebrum
Cerebral Cortex
Thin outer lay of gray matter that covers the cerebrum.
Basal Ganglia
White matter that covers cerebrum (lies under the cerebral cortex)
The cerebrum controls?
motor activities
interprets sensations
serves as the center of intellect, memory, language, and consciousness
What is the cerebrum divided by?
A deep groove, or longitudinal fissure, into two fleshy lobes called the right and left cerebral hemisphere.
Each hemisphere is further divided into four lobes
The four lobes of each hemisphere of the cerebrum?
frontal
parietal
temporal
occipital lobes
left hemisphere governs:
logic
language
reasoning
numbers
linearity
analysis
academic activities
right hemisphere is responsible for
rhythm
music
images
imagination
color
parallel processing
daydreaming
face recognition
pattern or map recognition
The cerebral lobes are named after
the bones that protect them.
The frontal lobe controls?
body movements
speech
judgment
intelligence
problem solving
The parietal lobe receives and integrates information from various sensory receptors, including vision and hearing. It plays a part in
language interpretation as well as spatial and visual perception
The occipital lobe receives information from the
thalamus about what you see and uses the information to help you formulate an appropriate response. This lobe is the primary visual area.
The temporal lobe receives and responds to
sound; it also formulates emotion, personality, and behavior.
cerebellum has ____ lobes
two- right and left
The narrow ridges in the cerebellar cortex are known as
folia
The cerebellum is located?
at the posterior aspect of the brain, underneath the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.
three main functions of the cerebellum
- it coordinates and refines voluntary movements such as running, walking, writing, and talking
- it helps to maintain muscle tone and posture
- because it receives impulses from the inner ear, it helps maintain equilibrium, or a sense of balance.
diencephalon, sometimes called the interbrain, location?
at the midline of the brain and is surrounded by the cerebrum.
diencephalon consists of
the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the posterior portion of the pituitary gland.
These three organs play a vital role in controlling many body processes via hormones.
Location of the brain stem
It sits underneath the rest of the brain and connects the brain to the spinal cord.
Function of the brain stem
It transmits all nerve messages from your body to the cerebrum and cerebellum. It controls vital functions of your body such as blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, consciousness, alertness, and pain sensitivity. Brain damage in this region is often serious and life threatening.
The brain stem has three parts:
the medulla oblongata
the pons
the midbrain
The nervous system is mainly composed of
brain
spinal cord
nerves
The brain and the spinal cord are referred to as the
central nervous system (CNS)
nerves make up the
peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The central nervous system contains the two most important structures in the body-
the brain and the spinal cord.
The cranial bone encases the____
brain
The vertebrae encases the _____
spinal cord
Meninges of the brain
Inner covering of the brain consisting of three layers:
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
In addition to protecting the brain and the spinal cord from injury, the meninges allow nourishment to pass through a complex channel system
Dura mater
a tough outside layer (brain)
Arachnoid mater
A web of delicate fibers connecting dura mater to pia mater
Pia mater
A soft and tender inside layer.
made of connective tissues and a rich supply of blood vessels
subdural space (below the dura mater)
contains many blood vessels that carry nourishment to the tissue.
subarachnoid space (Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater)
contains the cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
A built-in shock absorber for the central nervous system.
This colorless fluid circulates around and within the brain through the ventricles (cavities in the brain), the central canal of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space.
The CSF is produced by a collection of blood vessels called the choroid plexus, located within each ventricle.
These blood vessels also perform a special function within the brain. They help form what’s known as a blood cerebrospinal fluid brain barrier (BCSFB).
This barrier helps protect the brain by controlling which substances enter and leave the brain.
ventricles and the meninges (brain) function
Regulates the amount of CSF covering the brain.
The ventricles produce the fluid which is reabsorbed by the meninges to prevent the buildup of excess fluid.
Therefore, the meninges and the cerebrospinal fluid not only form a physical layer of protection for the brain but also serve a circulatory role by providing nutrients and removing waste products.
choroid plexus
collection of blood vessels located within each ventricle. These blood vessels also perform a special function within the brain. They help form what’s known as a blood cerebrospinal fluid brain barrier (BCSFB)
BCSFB
Blood Cerevrospinal Fluid Barrier
spinal cord
Lies inside the spinal column.
A slightly hollow cylinder of neural tissue, which is attached to the brain stem.
Gray matter (Spinal Cord)
Composes inner section of the spinal cord.
White matter (Spinal Cord)
outer region of the spinal cord.
contains sensory and motor neurons to transmit nerve impulses to and from the brain.
Spinal Cord location
begins at the medulla and continues down the vertebral column to the level of the second lumbar vertebra.
cauda equina
A collection of nerve roots at the lower end of the spinal column
The spinal cord sends out ____ pairs of spinal nerrves to connect to the perpheral nervous system.
31
The main function of the spinal cord is
To send sensory input to the brain and receive motor output from the brain.
Thus, damage to the spinal cord may affect the function of skeletal muscles even if the brain isn’t affected.
The spinal cord processes some signals without the involvement of the brain. These signals are responsible for primitive reflexes such as the blinking or sneeze reflex.
autonomic nervous system
Main function is to regulate the function of the cardiac muscles and smooth muscles, including those in the digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive, and endocrine systems.
The autonomic nervous system is further divided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system.
What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?
The sympathetic nervous system is like your body’s “fight or flight” system. When you’re faced with danger or stress, it revs up to help you react quickly.
Increased Heart Rate: It speeds up your heart rate.
Dilated Pupils: Your pupils widen.
Blood Flow Redistribution: It redirects blood flow to important organs like the brain and muscles.
Increased Sweating: To cool down the body.
Energy Release: It prepares your body for intense situations.
Adrenaline Release: The sympathetic system releases stress hormones like adrenaline, getting your body ready to handle emergencies and keep you safe
Parastympathetic nervous system
It is responsible for relaxing the body after stress, conserving energy, and facilitating recovery. It also helps regulate bodily functions such as digestion, heart rate, breathing, sexual arousal, salivation, and urination.
The neuron or nerve cell
is the basic unit of the nervous system. Its sole purpose is to conduct signals from one end of the nervous system to the other.
Neurons are divided into three major structures:
dendrites, cell body and axon
Dendrites
pick up signals and send them to the body of the nerve cell
neuron cell body
nourishes the neuron. In peripheral nerves, the cell body may even grow new fibers when old ones are cut or torn.
ganglions
Groups of cell bodies
axon
sends the impulse from the cell body to a muscle, gland, or another nerve cell. Bundles of axons make up nerves.
Afferent
to carry something toward a center
Efferent
meaning to carry something away from the center.
Myelin
Is a fatty substance that covers many of the axons in the central and peripheral nervous systems. You can think of myelin as an insulator because it keeps other nearby nerves from being affected by impulses. The myelin sheath also accelerates signal transmission along the axon. Certain diseases affecting the myelin sheath can hinder or slow down the conduction of signals in the nervous system.
synapse
Is the tiny space between neurons. Chemical substances called neurotransmitters help the impulse cross the synapses and travel from axon to dendrite.
Neuroglia
the only other type of nerve cell beside neurons, literally means “nerve glue”. Neuroglia cells serve to support, protect, and nourish the neurons and anchor them to the blood vessels.
Nervous system disorders may be caused by
functional impairments
brain tissue degeneration
vascular abnormalities
trauma
infections
Aging plays a role in decreased nerve signal reception and conduction. This results in varying degrees of
decreased vision, hearing, muscle coordination, confusion and weakness.
Some of the common symptoms of nervous system disorders include tremors, blurred vision, paralysis, irritability, change in respiration and pulse, restlessness, and speech difficulties.
Parkinson’s disease
Is a slow degenerative disease caused by shrinking levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
It may result from the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain.
Causes of Parkinson’s disease are unknown, and there’s no cure. Medications are used to relieve symptoms of the disease.
Dopamine
is a neurotransmitter vital for the normal functioning of posture, control, physical support, and voluntary movement.
Four hallmark signs of Parkinson’s disease:
Resting tremor (shakiness in hands and feet)
Muscular stiffness or rigidity
Slowing movements (bradykinesia)
Impaired postural reflexes (the most debilitating because it increases the risk of falls)
Medications used to treat Parkinson’s symptoms
Levodopa/Carbidopa (Sinemet)
Entacapone (Comtan)
Entacapone/Levodopa/Carbidopa (Stalevo)
Benztropine (Cogentin)
Rasagiline (Azilect)
Alzheimer’s disease
characterized by loss of memory, poor judgment, and general withdrawal from daily life. The exact causes of this disease are unclear. This disease can be traumatic for family members because the patient’s personality changes. One important fact about AD is that it’s not a normal process of aging. Early warning signs of Alzheimer’s disease include memory loss, difficulty performing familiar tasks, speech impairment, disorientation, and significant mood or behavior changes.
The following medications are commonly used to treat Alzheimer’s disease:
Donepezil (Aricept)
Rivastigmine (Exelon)
Galantamine (Razadyne)
Memantine (Namenda)
Multiple sclerosis (MS)
Is caused by an inflammation of the myelin sheath that covers the nerve pathways in the brain and spinal cord. Once the myelin sheath is damaged, nerves are unable to conduct impulses appropriately. Causes of MS are unknown, but some believe a virus is responsible. MS is more common in women than men and occurs more frequently between the ages of 15 and 45. Although steroids and muscle relaxants may help, there’s no effective treatment for MS.
MS symptoms
tingling
numbness and weakness affecting certain areas of the body.
loss of balance
poor coordination
shaking or tremors
muscle spasticity
difficulty in speaking clearly bladder dysfunction
The following medications are commonly used to treat MS:
Glatiramer (Copaxone)
Interferon beta-1a (Avonex)
Interferon beta-1b (Betaseron)
Azathioprine (Imuran)
Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan)
Mitoxantrone (Novantrone)
Diazepam (Valium), baclofen (Lioresal), and tizanidine (Zanaflex) are used to decrease symptoms of spasticity.
Meningitis
is an inflammation of the meninges due to an infection. The infection often results from an invasion of bacteria or viruses. Because there are many forms and degrees of meningitis, treatment is tailored to the type of bacterium or virus causing the disease as well as the severity of the infection.
Meningitis symptoms
fever
nausea
vomiting
stiff neck
inability to tolerate bright light
a deep red or purplish skin rash
drowsiness
unconsciousness in severe cases
Treatment meningitis
Meningitis is very difficult to treat with antivirals or antibiotics due to the inability of many medications to cross the blood-brain barrier. Patients often require high doses of antivirals and antibiotics to treat meningitis.
The following antibiotics and antivirals are effective against meningitis when used with a combination of two to three medications given in high doses:
Ceftriaxone (Rocephin)
Cefotaxime (Claforan)
Vancomycin (Vancocin)
Meropenem (Merrem)
Acyclovir (Zovirax)
Ganciclovir (Cytovene)
Myasthenia gravis
A rare disease that causes weakness in certain skeletal muscle groups due to faulty transmission of nerve impulses to those muscles.
Symptoms Myasthenia gravis
muscular weakness (initially facial)
drooping eyelids
double vision
difficulty talking and swallowing
Medications to treat myastenia gravis
Neostigmine (Prostigmin)
Pyridostigmine (Mestinon)
Tension headaches (or headaches in general)
are probably the most common medical complaint. Headaches can be caused by stress, lack of sleep, dehydration, a side effect of medications, or environmental factors.
The following medications are used in treating the common headache:
Acetaminophen (Tylenol)
Acetaminophen with caffeine (Excedrin)
Butalbital and aspirin (Fiorinal)
Butalbital and acetaminophen (Fioricet)
Acetaminophen, Isometheptene, and Dichloralphenazone (Midrin)
Ibuprofen (Motrin)
migraine
is an episodic headache that’s accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound. It’s one of the most severe and debilitating types of headache. Migraines are known to be caused by a sequence of changes as a result of neural dysfunctions.
The following medications are commonly used to treat acute attacks as well as prevent future migraine attacks:
Sumatriptan (Imitrex)
Eletriptan (Relpax)
Zolmitriptan (Zolmig)
Topiramate (Topamax)
Ergotamine (Ergostat)
CVA
A stroke is a sudden onset of a neurological deficit in the blood vessels that supply blood to the brain. The cause of the stroke can be due to a blood clot (thrombus) or bleeding (hemorrhage) in any part of the brain.
When a blood clot or thrombus clogs a blood vessel in the brain, it results in a lack of oxygen to the affected area, causing an
ischemic stroke
factors such as increased pressure and trauma can cause the blood vessels to burst open in the brain, causing a
hemorrhagic stroke
(often requires blood transfusions and immediate surgical intervention to stop the bleeding)
Symptoms of stroke
blurred vision
speech impairment
partial paralysis
dizziness
memory loss
fainting
The following medications are commonly used to treat ischemic stroke:
Dipyridamole (Persantine)
Ticlopidine (Ticlid)
Heparin sodium (Heparin)
Enoxaparin sodium (Lovenox)
Warfarin sodium (Coumadin)
Alteplase (TPA)- Treats acute and severe ischemic stroke and must be administered within the first one to two hours of the onset of stroke symptoms for the best clinical outcome
seizure disorder
generally known as a convulsion. It’s the disease of involuntary contraction or a series of contractions by voluntary muscles. Any irritation of the nerves can lead to seizures. Such irritations may be caused by infectious diseases such as meningitis and encephalitis.
There are many types of seizures, but regardless of the form, the seizure is caused by communication problems among the brain’s nerve cells. This breakdown in communication results in a temporary disturbance of the brain’s impulses. Patients may temporarily lose consciousness and have jerky movements in the skeletal muscles.
The following seizure medications are commonly used:
Phenytoin (Dilantin)
Carbamazepine (Tegretol)
Levetiracetam (Keppra)
Phenobarbital (Luminal)
Primidone (Mysoline)
Lamotrigine (Lamictal)
Gabapentin (Neurontin)
Tiagabine (Gabitril)
Valproic acid (Depakote)
Depression
a mood disorder that involves great sadness, despair, dejection, and feelings of hopelessness. Common symptoms of depression include lethargy, sleeplessness, lack of interest, isolation, and lack of motivation. Depression is caused by a decrease in the function of neurotransmitters (NTMs) responsible for controlling mood. Serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine are the main NYMS involved in many psychiatric disorders, including depression. Suicide is the most serious outcome of depression.
Antidepressant Medications
Drug Class: Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
Mechanism of Action: Increase serotonin levels at the synaptic cleft
Citalopram (Celexa)
Escitalopram (Lexapro)
Fluoxetine (Prozac)
Paroxetine (Paxil)
Sertraline (Zoloft)
Antidepressant Medications
Drug Class: Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)
Mechanism of Action: Increase both serotonin and norepinephrine levels at the synaptic cleft.
Amitriptyline (Elavil)
Nortriptyline (Pamelor)
Clomipramine (Anafranil)
Desipramine (Norpramin)
Imipramine (Tofranil)
Antidepressant Medications
Drug Class: Serotonin/Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs)
Mechanism of Action: Increase serotonin and norepinephrine levels by blocking reuptake.
Venlafaxine (Effexor)
Desvenlafaxine (Pristiq)
Duloxetine (Cymbalta)
Antidepressant Medications
Drug class: Other
Trazodone (Desyrel)
Bupropion (Wellbutrin)
Mirtazapine (Remeron)
Anxiety
Anxiety is believed to be caused by abnormal levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA). Extreme anxiety, fear, or terror may result in panic disorder.
Everyone experiences some level of anxiety during stressful or fearful situations. It’s the body’s normal reaction. When it becomes excessive and starts affecting daily routines, it becomes a disease. Anxiety often coexists with depression and is more common in women than men.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
s a form of anxiety. Patients suffering from OCD become anxious and obsessive performing certain tasks over and over in a certain order, such as hand-washing, arranging items in a certain way, or performing daily tasks in a specific order.
Symptoms OCD
Common symptoms of anxiety include agitation, tiredness, headache, stomach ache, restlessness, difficulty breathing, vomiting, excessive fear, and worry.
Treatment OCD
Even though the benzodiazepine class of medications listed below are the mainstays for treating anxiety, antidepressants and sedatives are also beneficial in treatment.
Alprazolam (Xanax)
Clonazepam (Klonopin)
Diazepam (Valium)
Lorazepam (Ativan)
Clorazepate (Tranxene-T)
Temazepam (Restoril)
Bipolar Disorder
is a mood disorder similar to depression. Patients experience episodes of both mania and depression at various points in their lives. It affects both men and women equally and generally becomes apparent in patients in their twenties. Bipolar disorder is managed with a combination of pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic therapies.
The following medications, called mood stabilizers, are used to treat bipolar disorder and are also commonly used to treat seizures:
Lithium (Eskalith)
Valproic acid (Depakote)
Carbamazepine (Carbatrol, Tegretol)
Lamotrigine (Lamictal)
Oxcarbazepine (Trileptal)
Topiramate (Topamax)
Levetiracetam (Keppra)
Schizophrenia
a psychiatric disorder characterized by false beliefs, confused thinking, hallucinations, and reduced social engagements. It affects men and women equally. The exact causes of schizophrenia are unknown, but it’s believed to be associated with abnormal levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Patients may suffer from “positive symptoms” or delusion and hallucinations or “negative symptoms” such as social withdrawal, lack of interest, and reduced expression.
It’s a chronic, debilitating disorder that’s very difficult to manage and requires a lot of emotional support from the patient’s family and friends.
The following medications are commonly used to treat schizophrenia
Haloperidol (Haldol)
Fluphenazine (Prolixin)
Clozapine (Clozarril)
Olanzapine (Zyprexa)
Quetiapine (Seroquel)
Risperidone (Risperdal)
Aripiprazole (Abilify)
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Is more common in children younger than seven to eight years old.
It’s a neurobehavioral developmental disorder that involves lack of attention and increased hyperactivity.
Three main behavioral symptoms include the inability to pay attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity.
Neurotransmitters that are believed to play an important role in ADHD are dopamine and norepinephrine.
psychotropic
relating to or denoting drugs that affect a person’s mental state
Receptors
Cells, Molecules, or nerve endings that react to produce a particular effect in response to a specific environmental stimulus.
olfactory nerve
The nerve that carries the sense of smell from the nose to the brain
Meninges
Three membranes beneath the bone coverings that envelop the brain and spinal cord.
Motor Nerves
Nerves that carry a nerve impulse, or neural message from the brain to various organs.
Sensory nerves
Nerves that carry a nerve impulse or neral message, from sensory organs to the brain.
Neurotransmitter
Chemical messengers such as dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, an d gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) that play an important role in transmitting the message from one neuron to another.
Paralysis
The total loss of muscle and nerve function in the affeccted area of the body.
Convulsion
The abnormal involuntary contractions of the muscles that result in uncontrolled shakiness and jerky movement of limbs.
Hallucination
A mental illness of perceiving senses of hearing, vision and smell without the presence of real stimuli.
The layer of fatty white substance that covers axons of many neurons is called
Cauda equina
Meninges
Myelin
Dura mater
Myelin
Paxil, Celexa, Zoloft, and Effexor are used to treat which of the following psychotropic disorders?
Anxiety
ADHS
Depression
Schizophrenia
Depression
Which part of the brain coordinates with ears to maintain posture and equilibrium?
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Cerebrum
Brain stem
Cerebellum
Heparin, Warfarin, and Enoxaparin are used to treat which of the following disorders?
Myasthenia gravis
Seizures
Ischemic Stroke
Meningitis
Ischemic Stroke
What’s the indication for Ketorolac (Acular) eye drops?
Anti-Inflammatory
Infection
Dry eyes
Glaucoma
Anti-Inflammatory
Which of the following diseases is caused by inflammation of the myelin covering of neurons?
Multiple sclerosis
Stroke
Myasthenia gravis
Meningitis
MS
Travopost and Timolol are used to treat which of the following eye conditions?
Conjunctivitis
Cataract
Infections
Glaucoma
Glaucoma
Which of the following is the innermost layer of the eyeball that detects light and transmits that signal to your brain?
Lens
Retina
Choroid
Sclera
Retina
The olfactory nerve is associated with which of the following senses?
Smell
Hearing
Taste
Vision
Smell
Alprazolam, Clonazepam, and Lorazepam are commonly used medications to treat which of the following diseases?
ADHD
Anxiety
Stroke
Schizophrenia
Anxiety
Levodopa/Carbidopa is used to treat which of the following diseases?
Alzeiheimer’s disease
Parkinson’s disease
Myasthenia gravis
Multiple sclerosis
Parkinson’s disease
Which type of receptors sense pressure and touch?
Pain receptors
Proprioceptors
Spinal receptors
Tactile receptors
Tactile receptors
- Which part of the middle ear plays an important role in equalizing the air pressure on each side of the eardrum?
Eustachian tube
Vestibule
Earbones called malleus, incus, and stapes
Organ of Corti
Eustachian tube
Which of the following medications is commonly used to treat insomnia?
Methylphenidate
Zolpidem
Lamotrigine
Clozapine
Zolpidem
What’s the main function of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
Produce blood cells
Makes a physical layer of protection
Transmit nerve impulse
Fight infection
Makes a physical layer of protection
Which of the following ear drops treat infection and reduce inflammation?
Cipro
Debrox
Floxin
Ciprodex
Ciprodex
Which of the following is a possible effect of sympathetic nervous system activation?
Decreased heart rate
Decreased muscle activity
Increase digestion
Increased heart rate
Increased heart rate
Which part of the peripheral nervous system controls the muscle movement in your heart and lungs?
Central nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Cardiac nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Which of the following diseases is characterized by loss of memory, poor judgment, and general withdrawal from daily life?
Myasthenia gravis
Alzheimer’s disease
Parkinson’s disease
Multiple sclerosis
Alzheimer’s disease
Phenytoin is used to treat which of the following diseases?
Meningitis
Depression
Stroke
Seizures
Meningitis
