IMMUNE SYSTEM, HIV & CANCER Flashcards
1
Q
immune system is compoesed of…
A
various organs, cells, enzymes, and hormones that provide protection against infection-causing microorganisms.
2
Q
concomitant disease
A
A concomitant disease is a second illness occurring at the same time as a primary illness
3
Q
Innate immunity
A
the general and nonspecific immunity that your body possesses to fight various diseases.
It comprises defense barriers such as the skin, hair, sebum, saliva, neutrophils, monocytes, and other enzymes that immediately detect and destroy the pathogens.
It’s a rapid response system that acts as the first line of defense against infections.
You are born with the components of innate immunity, and it can’t be learned, created, or produced- hence the name “innate”.
Since bacteria and viruses multiply quickly, innate immunity is crucial in providing protection until the second line of defense, or adaptive immunity, starts involving in the process.
In addition to providing the first line of defense against disease-causing microorganisms, the innate immune system activates, directs, and instructs components of the adaptive immunity.
It also regulates inflammation and maintains equilibrium among various immune system processes.
4
Q
Adaptive immunity (acquired immunity)
A
comes into play when innate immunity is breached.
Adaptive immunity isn’t very helpful in protecting your body when a specific bacteria, virus, or any other microorganism enters your body for the first time.
Its components function by learning the pathogen and then developing immunity against it.
Adaptive immune responses are continually refined and adjusted throughout your lifetime.
5
Q
Antigen
A
Foreign substance recofnized by your body in the form of an outsider protein.
An antigen triggers the production of antibodies, which attack the antigen to destroy it. A specific type of white blood cell (WBC) called the lymphocyte is a major cell of the adaptive immune system.
6
Q
Lymphocytes are further classified as?
A
T lymphocytes (T cells)
B lymphocytes (B cells)
7
Q
Vaccines
A
Are manufactured based on the adaptive immune system function. An antigen derived from a particular disease-causing bacteria or virus is manufactured, then introduced into the body in the form of a vaccine.
Vaccines are administered to healthy individuals to trigger the adaptive immune response and produce antibodies against that antigen without causing the disease.
8
Q
Three types of granulocytes
A
neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils
9
Q
Neutrophils
A
Are the most prevalent types of WBCs.
They respond to bacterial infections, such as pneumonia or urinary infections, by engulfing the bacteria through the process of phagocytosis and are often referred to as phagocytes.
If the infection is moderate to severe, the bone marrow will produce extra neutrophils. Neutrophils are observed during the early stages of acute inflammation.
10
Q
Eosinophils
A
Are predominantly involved in allergic reactions.
Their concentration may be elevated after allergic reactions to food or drugs.
Eosinophils also help fight parasitic infections.
11
Q
Basophils
A
Like the other granulocytes, are involved in the process of inflammation.
They’re the rarest of leucocytes.
Basophils help combat allergic reactions by releasing two chemicals:
Histamine
Heparin
12
Q
Agranulocytes
A
Produced by the bone marrow.
Don’t contain secretory granules in their cytoplasm.
Two types of agranulocytes: Lymphocytes & Monocytes
They’re part of innate immunity and are the important first responders to infection.
The bloodstream helps by continuously circulating immune cells throughout the body.
13
Q
B cells produce….
A
antibodies
14
Q
T cells …..
A
participate in cell-mediated immune response against bacterial and viral infections.
T cells don’t produce antibodies. They simply attack atypical or abnormal cells, causing death of the diseased cell by activating macrophages or by inducing a series of chemical reactions that encourage the cell to die (apoptosis).
15
Q
Main function monocytes
A
Like neutrophils, To engulf and digest the damaged cells and pathogens.
Monocytes function as part of innate immunity.
16
Q
Antibodies, or immunoglobulins function:
A
Specifically bind with pathogens to deactivate them or tag them to be destroyed by specific WBCs. Producing antibodies against a known antigen is your body’s way of providing future protection from infection by the same pathogen.
17
Q
Cytokines
A
Proteins produced by various cells, including the immune cells. Cytokines play an important role in the immune system by sending and receiving signals to carry out various immune system processes.
Cytokines communicate with immune cells to help regulate, direct, and amplify the immune response.
18
Q
thymus
A
a small endocrine gland located in the upper chest area.
The main function of the thymus gland is to develop a newborn’s immune response; in adults, the thymus continues to be important in the maturation of lymphocytes, specifically T lymphocytes.
While the bone marrow is responsible for the production of lymphocytes from stem cells, only B cells mature there.
T cells, on the other hand, mature in the thymus.
First, the bone marrow sends some immature lymphocytes out to the blood to be deposited in the thymus gland.
Here, the immature lymphocytes become thymocytes and further mature to become T lymphocytes or the T cells.
The thymus gland is considered a part of the lymphatic system.
19
Q
apoptosis
A
T cells don’t produce antibodies. They simply attack atypical or abnormal cells, causing death of the diseased cell by activating macrophages or by inducing a series of chemical reactions that encourage the cell to die (a process known as apoptosis).
20
Q
lymphatic system
A
Is a network of vessels and tissues that carry lymph throughout your body.
This system is also composed of the thymus gland and lymph nodes.
Similar to blood, lymph is an extracellular fluid that continuously circulates throughout your body. Immune cells are carried through the lymphatic system and stored in the lymph nodes, which are found throughout your body.
This network transports excess fluid from the tissues back to the circulatory system, filters bacteria, acts as an emergency reservoir of blood, destroys and removes old red blood cells, and produces monocytes and T lymphocytes for the immune system. The lymphatic system also absorbs fats from the small intestine and delivers them into the bloodstream. Lymph nodes serve as spots where stored immune cells may detect a foreign pathogen and initiate the immune response against the pathogen. Thus, swollen lymph nodes are usually indicative of your body’s active immune system.
21
Q
lymph
A
is an extracellular fluid that continuously circulates throughout your body.
22
Q
Immune cells are carried through the lymphatic system and stored in the…….?
A
lymph nodes
23
Q
Location of the spleen
A
on the left side of the abdomen, just below the diaphragm.
24
Q
Spleen function
A
The spleen also stores immune cells and activates these cells to respond to disease-causing pathogens.
It stores lymphocytes and other blood cells, and it filters out bacteria and viruses from the arterial blood circulation.
As the blood passes through the capillary network in the spleen, it comes into contacts with lymphocytes that clear the blood of any infected cells that may be there.
T cells, as you’ve learned, work to destroy atypical, infected, or defective cells.
B cells produce antibodies that will work to destroy future infections when they’re recognized again.
In a fetus, one of the main functions of the spleen is to produce lymphocytes and red blood cells.
Before the long bones are fully formed and able to produce cells, the spleen is where the blood cell formation occurs.
Once the bones take over production, the spleen focuses on storing and filtering blood and fighting infection.
25
Examples of autoimmune diseases :
- Myasthenia gravis (MG)
- Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)
- Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)
- Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
- Lupus (SLE)
26
HIV
is a virus that causes AIDS, a disease that suppresses the body’s natural immune system. The virus destroys the T lymphocytes (T cells) that fight infections, leaving patients prone to deadly infections. In some cases, the immune system is suppressed using medications to protect against autoimmune diseases and certain cancers. It’s also sometimes done to prevent organ rejection after an organ transplant.
27
How can HIV be transmitted?
blood transfusions
intravenous drug use
male-to-female sexual contact female-to-female sexual contact mother to baby
exposure in the workplace from patient to healthcare worker
28
HIV is most commonly found in....
Blood
Semen
Vaginal Secretions
29
mid-stage period of HIV infection
Is persistent generalized lymphadenopathy, in which enlarged lymph nodes, skin rashes, chronic fatigue, and weight loss occur. Finally, full-blown AIDS strikes, rendering the immune system powerless. The patient becomes subject to opportunistic infections such as Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS), Pneumocytis carinii pneumonia (PCP), and lymphoma.
30
Persistent generalized lymphadenopathy
Persistent generalized lymphadenopathy (PGL) is enlarged, painless, non-tender lymph nodes occurring in a couple of different areas for more than three to six months for which no other reason can be found.
31
Kaposi's sarcoma
Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is a type of cancer that can form masses on the skin, in lymph nodes, in the mouth, or in other organs.[4][6] The skin lesions are usually painless, purple and may be flat or raised.[6][8] Lesions can occur singly, multiply in a limited area, or may be widespread.[6] Depending on the sub-type of disease and level of immune suppression, KS may worsen either gradually or quickly
32
Pneumocytis carinii pneumonia
Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), also known as Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP), is a form of pneumonia that is caused by the yeast-like fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii.
33
The HIV life cycle
1. Binding- HIV binds to the CD4 cell surface.
2. Fusion- HIV and CD4 cell membrane fuse.
3. Reverse Transcription- HIV, using its enzyme reverse transcriptase, converts its RNA into DNA. DNA then enters the CD4 cell nucleus.
4. Integration- Another HIV enzyme, integrase, facilitates the insertion of the HIV DNA into the CD4 cell DNA.
5. Replication- Now as part of the CD4 DNA, HIV begins to replicate its own RNA and other HIV proteins.
6. Assembly- New HIV RNA, along with other viral proteins, produces an immature HIV.
7. Budding- Immature HIV comes out of the CD4 cell and uses its own enzyme called protease to become a mature and infectious HIV.
34
PJP
Is a type of lung infection, or pneumonia, caused by a microorganism called Pneumocystis jirovecii. It’s the most common and life-threatening infection in HIV-infected patients. PCP prophylaxis with the following medications is recommended for patients with HIV infection:
Sulfamethoxazole/Trimethoprim (Bactrim)
Dapsone (Dapsone)
Atovaquone (Mepron)
Pentamidine inhalation (Nebupent)
35
MAC
MAC is a group of bacteria that can cause serious and deadly infections of the lungs, bones, and blood in HIV patients. MAC infection is generally considered an end-stage complication of AIDS. MAC prophylaxis with the following medications is recommended for patients with HIV infection:
Azithromycin (Zithromax)
Clarithromycin (Biaxin)
Rifabutin (Mycobutin)
36
The three types of organ rejection:
Hyperacute
Acute
Chronic
37
Hyperacute rejection
Cccurs within minutes of implanting a new organ. One of the main causes of this type of rejections is mismatched blood type or other markers. Hyperacute rejection usually requires removal of the new organ.
38
Acute rejection
Occurs within two or three weeks of the organ transplant. It’s a T-cell mediated immune response to specific markers on the donor organ.
39
Chronic rejection
Usually occurs after three or more months of the organ transplant. It’s a B-cell mediated response that produces antibodies against the donor organ.
40
Immunosuppression
Is a phenomenon of decreased or total lack of immune response in the body.
It may be caused by diseases such as cancer and HIV infection. Immunosuppression may also be induced during an organ transplant and then be continued as maintenance therapy to prevent chronic rejection.
Patients on immunosuppressive medications after an organ transplant are at higher risk of contracting infections.
Patients are generally instructed to practice good hand hygiene, avoid close contact with the sick, and stay away from crowded places.
41
Induction immunosuppressive therapy
To prevent acute organ rejection, induction immunosuppressive therapy is administered before, during, or immediately after the organ transplant.
Induction therapy works by depleting functional lymphocytes to prevent an immediate immune response against the new organ.
The following medications are commonly used as induction therapy to eliminate all antibodies against the new organ:
Antithymocyte globulin (Atgam or ATG, and rATG)
Muromonab-CD3 (OKT3)
Anti-interleukin-2 (IL-2)
Basiliximab (Simulect)
42
The following medications are commonly used to avoid chronic rejection:
Cyclosporine (Sandimmune, Neoral)
Tacrolimus (Prograf)
Methylprednisolone (Solu-Medrol)
Prednisone (Prelone)
Azathioprine (Imuran)
Mycophenolate (CellCept)
43
METASTASIS
When cancer cells break away from the initial, or primary, site of the disease, a secondary metastatic growth can develop in another part of the body.
If cancer proceeds to grow exponentially, it will start invading the tissues of the surrounding area. Further progression starts attracting the lymph system to pick up damaged cells from the cancerous site to bring them to the lymph nodes to destroy. Since cancerous cells multiply rapidly, the lymph nodes often become overwhelmed and inflamed by the number of abnormal cells collected in them.
For this reason, lymph nodes are routinely checked when cancer is suspected. When the lymph system becomes overwhelmed, it’s unable to get rid of all the abnormal cancer cells.
Abnormal cells will move along with the lymph until they’re deposited again into the venous system. The lymph becomes plasma and moves along the bloodstream, where it’s deposited into tissues as interstitial fluid. This process, called metastasis, allows cancer to spread easily to various locations.
44
Metastasis Example
If a cancer has metastasized to another area of the body, the patient isn’t considered to have two different kinds of cancers. Consider this example:
The cells in the breast are different from lung cells. If a patient has a primary breast cancer tumor and, during treatment, another tumor is discovered in a lung, the pathologist can identify the cancer from the cell type. There are two possibilities. If the tumor is found to have cells of the type that are found in the breast, then this is metastatic breast cancer, or breast cancer that has traveled through the lymph system and continued to produce malignant cells within the lung. However, if the pathologist finds that the tumor is composed of cells that are consistent with other cells in the lung, but abnormal, then the patient would be considered to have primary lung cancer as well as primary breast cancer and this would not be a case of metastasis.
In cases of advanced cancer, the cells may be so undifferentiated that it’s difficult to tell where they came from. Thus, there are several systems of grading and staging tumors that can help to pinpoint the degree of disease from which the patient is suffering.
45
neoplasms
Cells in your body are constantly growing and dividing. Sometimes, cells begin to multiply in an uncontrolled fashion and develop an abnormal tissue or growth. The abnormal cells or growth have no useful physiological purpose in the body and can cause irreparable damage. These abnormal growths are called neoplasms.
46
The study of neoplasms
Oncology
47
Two types of neoplasms
Benign
Malignant
48
Both types of neoplasm can cause a lump to form in the tissue, called a
Tumor
49
benign neoplasm also called
benign tumor
50
A malignant neoplasm is called
Cancer
51
The following characteristics differentiate benign tumors from cancerous tumors:
Benign tumors grow slowly; cancer grows rapidly
Benign tumors are often enclosed by a well-defined membrane border; cancerous tumors are non-capsulated, with an ill-defined membrane border, and project into surrounding tissues
Benign tumors don’t usually cause harm to the body unless they’re large and interfere with the proper functioning of surrounding tissue. For example, due to the limited space in the cranium, benign brain tumors may be harmful to the surrounding brain tissue. Malignant neoplasms or cancer cells are always dangerous, no matter where they are, since the cells will travel through the blood and lymph to invade tissues near and far.
Benign neoplasms don’t usually grow back after surgical removal; cancer cells frequently regenerate after surgical removal.
52
carcinogenesis
Process of normal cells transforming into cancerous cells.
Researchers believe this process occurs in the genetic code of the cells, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of chromosomes. In normal cell division, a group of genes called proto-oncogenes handle the proteins necessary for that division. In normal DNA, DNA repair genes and tumor suppressor genes can reverse damage in the cells.
53
In normal cell division, a group of genes called ........handle the proteins necessary for that division.
proto-oncogenes
54
........can reverse damage in the cells
DNA repair genes and tumor suppressor genes
55
DNA repair genes function
correct any abnormalities in cells before they divide.
56
tumor suppressor genes function
control the growth rate of cells, instructing them to kill themselves (apoptosis) if they start multiplying too rapidly or if the DNA repair genes can’t fix the defect.
57
oncogenes
proto oncogenes mutated
58
Mitosis
Cell division
59
Once the genetic material of a cell has transformed, or mutated the genetic code is......
lost
60
How can cancer be passed down?
A change in DNA structure can be passed down to subsequent generations through the transfer of DNA from parents to a fetus.
Some cancers result from a defect in the arrangement of DNA chromosomes in the original egg and sperm that created the individual.
A child can be born with a defect in the chromosomes that will cause mutation if activated.
The factors that activate a gene are unclear.
Some cancers have biological causes, relating to factors such as aging and reproductive history. These changes happen during a person’s lifetime.
They’re called acquired, or somatic, mutations.
61
Carcinogens Household chemicals:
Benzene in glues, insecticides, tobacco smoke, and additives in processed foods.
62
Carcinogens Industrial pollutants:
Arsenic from mining and smelting, asbestos from construction, benzene from oil refineries.
63
Carcinogens Radiation:
Ultraviolet rays from the sun, X-rays and radioactive substances from diagnostic and therapeutic procedures.
64
Carcinogens Hormones:
Primarily the synthetic estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES)
65
Carcinogens Viruses:
Hepatitis B virus can lead to liver cancer and human papillomavirus is known to cause cervical cancer.
66
The American Cancer Society recommends regular physical exams and has publicized the acronym CAUTION, which states the following seven early signs of cancer:
Change in bowel habit
A sore that doesn’t heal
Unusual bleeding or discharge
Thickening of tissue or a lump
Indigestion or trouble swallowing
Obvious changes to moles or warts
Nagging cough or persistent hoarseness
67
Classifications containing the suffix -oma, which means “tumor”, connected to a body part word, are almost always ......
Benign
Examples include papilloma (an epithelial tumor), adenoma (a tumor originating in a gland), or osteoma (a bony tumor usually found on the skull).
68
But the combining forms carcin(o) and sarc(o) turn the suffix- oma into
a serious illness
69
papilloma
an epithelial tumor
70
adenoma
a tumor originating in a gland
71
osteoma
a bony tumor usually found on the skull
72
Carcinomas
Cancers that originate in the epithelial tissues and include most breast, stomach, uterine, skin, tongue, and glandular cancers. Some examples are esophageal carcinoma, carcinoma of the breast, and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. The great majority (about 90 percent) of cancers are carcinomas.
73
Sarcomas
Cancers that originate in connective tissues such as bones, muscles, and lymph.
They’re often named by adding the suffix -sarcoma to the combining form for that tissue.
Examples include osteosarcoma, cancer originating in bone tissue; chondrosarcoma, cancer originating in cartilage; and liposarcoma, cancer originating in fat tissue.
Sarcomas are the minority form of cancer, but they’re generally more fat-growing and deadly than carcinomas.
74
osteosarcoma
cancer originating in bone tissue
75
chondrosarcoma
cancer originating in cartilage
76
liposarcoma
cancer originating in fat tissue
77
Sarcomas are the minority form of cancer, but they’re generally more......
fast-growing and deadly than carcinomas.
78
Blood and lymph cancers usually originate in the
bone marrow where blood and lyph cells are produced.
Examples of these cancers include leukemia, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and multiple myeloma.
79
Broders index Grade 1 :
The tumor is highly differentiated, or close to normal parent tissue, but some abnormality is present.
80
Broders index Grade 2 :
The tumor is moderately differentiated, or not as close to normal parent tissue and the cells are fairly irregular.
81
Broders index Grade 3 :
The tumor is poorly differentiated, or quite far from normal parent tissue, and the tissue of origin may even be difficult to identify.
82
Broders index Grade 4 :
The tumor is dedifferentiated, or anaplastic, and so immature and primitive that it’s virtually impossible to tell what is the parent tissue.
83
Stage I
Is assigned when the tumor cells are localized at the original site only.
84
Stage II & III
As the tumor spreads further from the original site, the stage level increases to stage II & III
85
Stage IV
Is assigned when cancer is spread to many organs throughout the body.
86
Radiation therapy
Used post-surgery to target any remaining cancer cell fragments by exposing the cancer site to direct radiation treatments.
87
Treating cancer with medication is known as
chemotherapy
88
Chemotherapy regimen
Means there are two or more antitumor drugs being used to destroy the malignancy.
89
Chemotherapy
Is often combined with surgery and radiation to treat advanced stages of cancer. The goal of cancer chemotherapy is to introduce agents that will kill malignant tissue while leaving all the healthy tissue intact.
90
Remission
meaning all signs of the disease will disappear.
91
Antitumor drugs are referred to as........... meaning they inhibit the maturation and reproduction of malignant cells. Different drugs are used, and in different combinations, depending on the type, stage, grade, and location of cancer as well as the patient’s condition.
antineoplastic agents
92
Alkylating agents
Kill rapidly proliferating malignant cells by preventing DNA replication. These medications work by attaching an “alkyl” group to the DNA or otherwise damaging the DNA. While fast dividing cancer cells are unable to detect this error, resulting in DNA damage and cancer cell death, healthy cells generally can correct this error.
93
Nitrogen Mustard
One of the first alkylating agents used to treat cancer and was also one of the modern drugs to effectively treat cancer. One of the disadvantages of these drugs is their non-specificity to the cancer cells.
94
Examples of Commonly used alkylating and alkylating-like agents are:
Carboplatin (Paraplatin)
Carmustine (BiCNU)
Chlorambucil (Leukeran)
Cisplatin (Platinol)
Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan)
Mechlorethamine hydrochloride (Mustargen)
Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin)
Temozolomide (Temodar)
95
Antimetabolites
are a class of medications commonly used to treat various cancers.
These medications inhibit certain metabolites that are essential to carry out cell metabolism, causing defects in cell growth and multiplication.
Since cancer cells divide and grow exponentially, these medications act more quickly on growing cancer cells than on normal, healthy cells.
Just like any other chemotherapy medication, there’s some damage to healthy cells along with cancer cells.
To avoid damage to healthy cells, chemotherapy regimens are often given in cycles of every three to six weeks.
The time between the chemotherapy regimens allows the body to recover from the side effects.
96
Commonly used antimetabolites are:
Azathioprine (Imuran)
Cytarabine (Cytosar-U)
Fludarabine (Fludara)
Fluorouracil (5-FU)
Mercaptopurine (Purinethol)
Methotrexate (Trexall)
97
Antitumor antibiotics
aren’t the same as antibiotics. These agents prevent the normal replication of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
These medications work by binding to the DNA to halt the RNA synthesis, in turn causing cancer cell death.
98
The antitumor antibiotics commonly used are:
Bleomycin (Blenoxane)
Dactinomycin (Cosmegen)
Daunorubicin (Cerubidine)
Doxorubicin (Adriamycin)
Epirubicin (Ellence)
Idarubicin (Idamycin)
Mitomycin (Mutamycin)
Mitoxantrone (Novantrone)
99
Vinca alkaloids, also called plant alkaloids
are drugs derived from plants. They inhibit cell division at a specific step during the cell cycle
100
The vinca alkaloids commonly used are:
Vinblastine (Velban)
Vincristine (Vincasar)
Vinorelbine (Navelbine)
101
Hormones are essential for conducting many key processes and reactions to your body. Unfortunately, hormones may at times trigger or aid in the development of certain cancers such as......
breast cancer, prostate cancer, and other cancers of the reproductive organs.
102
Antihormones (agents that counteract hormones) and certain steroid analogs of hormones are commonly used to treat
breast cancer, prostate cancer, and other cancers of the reproductive organs.
103
Hormone analogs
compete to bind to the hormone receptor sites to stop or reduce cancer cell growth. These agents are successfully used to treat various hormone-dependent cancers, such as estrogen-dependent breast cancer.
104
The hormone-like agents commonly used are:
Anastrozole (Arimidex)
Bicalutamide (Casodex)
Exemestane (Aromasin)
Letrozole (Femara)
Tamoxifen (Soltamox)
Toremifene (Fareston)
105
Immunomodulating drugs
work by activating the immune system or modifying a biological response to an unwanted stimulus such as a tumor.
These drugs either boost your body’s immune system so that it’s more active in destroying cancer cells, or they make the cancer cells more evident to the immune system.
They may also enhance your body’s ability to recover from other therapies, such as radiation and chemotherapy.
106
Monoclonal antibodies
are used successfully as immune system modulators to treat many types of cancers.
These antibodies are produced in the laboratory.
Scientists use the tumor material itself to determine which antigens are present on the neoplasm, identify which antibodies work against that particular antigen, and then replicate these antibodies.
They can inject the antibodies directly toward the tumor.
They can even attach radiological or chemotherapeutic materials to the antibodies that will enhance the disease-fighting ability of the antibodies themselves.
This therapy has been successful in treating leukemia and lymphoma.
107
The monoclonal antibodies commonly used are:
Bevacizumab (Avastin)
Cetuximab (Erbitux)
Rituximab (Rituxan)
Trastuzumab (Herceptin)
Siltuximab (Sylvant)
108
Interferons
are natural proteins produced by cells in reaction to viruses or bacteria.
Interferons inhibit viral strains from reproducing, trigger macrophages to engulf or eat cancer cells, and increase antigens so lymphocytes can produce antibodies against them.
Interferons are used in the treatment of malignant melanoma (a type of skin cancer), some types of leukemia, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma.
109
The interferon drugs commonly used are:
Interferon Alfa-2b (Intron A)
Peginterferon Beta-1a (Plegridy)
110
Antineoplastic therapy is a dangerous undertaking. The drugs are strong enough to kill cancer cells, and also likely to kill rapidly proliferating healthy tissue, especially in the.....
GI tract, the scalp, and the bone marrow.
111
Common side effects of chemotherapy medications include
Hair loss
Pain
Fatigue
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Stomatitis
Reduced blood cell production
112
Nausea and vomiting induced by chemotherapy medications
are notorious.
The best management for nausea and vomiting is to give the appropriate medications prior to the initiation of chemotherapy and continue for three to five days after completion of the chemotherapy regimen.
Once patients start feeling the symptoms of nausea, it’s very difficult to treat with even the strongest anti-nausea medications. It’s very important to instruct patients to continue taking prescribed nausea medications for prevention.
113
The following medications are commonly used to treat chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting:
Dexamethasone (Decadron)
Granisetron (Kytril)
Lorazepam (Ativan)
Ondansetron (Zofran)
Prochlorperazine (Compazine)
114
Stomatitis
is an inflamed and sore mouth. There are different types of stomatitis.
It’s caused by irritated mucous membranes in the mouth. Chemotherapy medications often kill rapidly dividing cells of the mucous membrane in your mouth leading to irritation and swelling. Patients are often prescribed topical anesthetics such as Lidocaine (Xylocaine) to apply locally for the numbness effect.
115
Leukopenia
is defined as a reduction in the number of leukocytes in the blood. Patients with a decreased level of leukocytes or WBCs are at a higher risk to catch infections because WBCs are the primary cells that protect the body against infections. Medications on the market called granulocyte-stimulating factors help increase the production and maturation of leukocytes.
116
The following two medications are commonly used to boost the levels of WBCs after chemotherapy:
Filgrastim (Neupogen)
Pegfilgrastim (Neulasta)
117
Patients often need pain medications to control aches and pains due to chemotherapy. The following pain medications are commonly used:
Acetaminophen (Tylenol)
Ibuprofen (Motrin)
Hydrocodone/acetaminophen (Vicodin)
Oxycodone (OxyContin)
Morphine Sulfate (MS Contin)
118
Alopecia
is defined as hair loss.
Patients often have to wear wigs or scarves to cover their scalp. Hair grows back once chemotherapy treatment is completed.
119
The brand name of mycophenolate is
Rapamune
Solu-medrol
Cellcept
Imuran
Imuran
120
Which of the following is considered an end stage complication of AIDS?
MAC
Cancer
CMV
PCP
MAC
121
The most common route of HIV transmission is
Perinatal
Sexual
Needle sticks
Blood transfusions
Sexual
122
What is the generic name for Zofran?
Sirolimus
Ondansetron
Azathioprine
Cyclosporine
Odansetron
123
Which type of medications are manufactured as an antigen against the disease-causing bacteria or virus and then administered to healthy individuals to produce adaptive immune response?
Chemotherapy drugs
Vaccines
Immune-modulators
Alkylating agents
Vaccines
124
An enzyme that facilitates the maturation of new HIV virus is called
CCR5
Protease
Reverse transcriptase
Integrase
Protease
125
Cancer that originate in the epithelial tissues including breast, stomach, and skin cancers are called
Metastasis
Myelomas
Carcinomas
Sarcomas
Carcinomas
126
Which of the following medications is used for PCP prophylaxis?
Bactrim
Azithromycin
Retrovir
Abacavir
Bactrim
127
It’s important to follow an antiviral regimen strictly, as prescribed to
Increase toxicity
Reduce resistance
Decrease compliance
Reduce efficacy
Reduce resistance
128
A potent immunosuppressive agent commonly reserved for induction therapy to prevent organ rejection is
Sirolimus
Muromonab-CD3
Prednisone
Tacrolimus
Muromonab-CD3
129
Scientifically engineered specific molecules to fight cancer-causing antigen are called
Antimetabolites
Monoclonal antibodies
Interferons
Antitumor antibiotics
Monoclonal antibodies
130
Which of the following is the most common side effect of immunosuppressive medications?
Allergy
Pain
Antibiotic resistance
Higher risk of infection
Higher risk of infection
131
Tamoxifen is an example of what type of chemotherapy drug class?
Vinca alkaloid
Antitumor antibiotics
Hormone-based chemotherapy drugs
Immune system modulating agents
Hormone-based chemotherapy drugs
132
What’s the generic name for Arimidex?
Letrozole
Tamoxifen
Anastrozole
Adriamycin
Anastrozole
133
Cyclophosphamide and carboplatin belong to which class of chemotherapy medications?
Vinca alkaloids
Antimetabolites
Antitumor Antibiotics
Alkylating agents
Alkylating agents
134
Dexamethasone and Odansetron are used to treat which chemotherapy side effect?
Alopecia
Decreased WBCs
Pain
Nausea and vomiting
Nausea and vomiting
135
Skin, hair and monocytes are responsible for what type of immunity?
Hereditary immunity
Learned immunity
Innate immunity
Acquired immunity
Innate immunity
136
Which of the following HIV medications is classified as an integrase inhibitor?
Nevirapine
Raltegravir
Delavirdine
Enfuvirtide
Raltegravir
137
Which type of white blood cells work by engulfing and eating defective cells and pathogens?
Monocytes
B-cells
Cytokines
Eosinophils
Monocytes
138
Which type of the following immune cells produce antibodies against pathogens or antigens?
T-cells
Cytokines
B-cells
Phagocytes
B-cells
139
The brand name of mycophenolate is
Imuran
Cellcept
Solu-medrol
Rapamune
Cellcept
140
Sometimes your immune system stays ______ over long periods of time due to seasonal allergies.
Hyperactive
Hypoactive
Inactive
Dormant
Hyperactive
141
MAC prophylaxis for patients with HIV is recommended with
Indinavir
Didanosine
Ritonavir
Zithromax
Zithromax
142
Which of the following statements best describes a function of adaptive immunity?
It regulates equilibrium between immune system processes.
It regulates inflammation in the body
It serves as the first line of defense in a body.
It is useful only when an antigen invades a body for the second time.
It is useful only when an antigen invades a body for the second time.
143
How are drugs for HIV patients administered?
As a maximum of two drugs at a time
In a regimen of two to four drugs
As a single drug therapy
Beginning with the weakest and proceeding to the strongest drug
In a regimen of two to four drugs
144
_______ is a general and nonspecific immunity against any pathogen trying to enter your body.
Innate
Intuitive
Antibacterial
Anti-viral
Innate
145
The generic name of Doxorubicin is
Codeine
Cytoxan
Adriamycin
Cyclophosphamide
Adriamycin
146
The most common way in which HIV is contracted is during
Blood transfusion
The delivery of a baby to an infected mother
The sharing of needles used in drug abuse
Participation in unprotected sex
Participation in unprotected sex
147
The generic name for Videx is
Ritonavir
Indinavir
Azathioprine
Didanosine
Didanosine
148
The generic name for Prograf is
Simethicone
Indinavir
Didanosine
Tacrolimus
Tacrolimus
149
One type of immune response your body produces is
T-cell
Intuitive
Pathogenic
Innate
Innate
150
The spreading of cancer to various parts of the body is called
Metastasis
Apoptosis
Mutation
Mitosis
Metastasis
151
Medications such as _______ weaken the immune system by damaging immune cells.
Aspirin and ibuprofen
Anti-inflammatories
Statins
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy
152
The suffix -oma means
Tumor
White
Cancer
Body
Tumor
153
In normal DNA, what controls the growth rate of cells?
Tumor suppressor genes
Neoplasms
Repair genes
Oncogenes
Tumor suppressor genes
154
_______ play an important role in the immune system by sending and receiving signals for immune system processes.
Platelets
CSF and Plasma
Cytokines
Blood and T-cells
Cytokines
155
The generic name for Arimidix is
Cytoxan
Anastrozole
Adriamycin
Codeine
Anastrozole
156
Cancers that originate in connective tissues such as bone are called
Lymphedemas
Lymphomas
Sarcomas
Carcinomas
Carcinomas
157
An infection that takes advantage of the reduced immune system in an HIV-infected person is called
Multiple sclerosis
Lupus
An autoimmune disease
An opportunistic infection
An opportunistic infection
158
Immune cells are stored in the
Bone marrow
Thymus
Lymph nodes
Stomach
Lymph nodes
159
You can treat autoimmune diseases by using
Acetaminophen
Ibuprofen
Cyclosporine
Aspirin
Cyclosporine
160
Benign tumors are usually treatable with
Surgical removal
Isotopes
Radiation therapy
Chemotherapy
Surgical removal
161
Pregnant women have
No immune system
No change in their immune system
A stronger immune system
A weaker immune system
A weaker immune system
162
Lymphocytes are
A blood type
Classified into L-cells
Classified into A-cells
A type of leukocyte
A type of leukocyte
163
Immune cells are stored primarily in the
Brain
Heart
Stomach
Spleen
Spleen
164
What term is used to describe the ability of pathogens to adapt to a particular medication so that a medication is no longer effective?
Resistance
Replication
Immunity
Inhibition
Resistance
165
In terms of early signs of cancer, the U in the acronym CAUTION stands for
Uneven mole or wart
Unusual bleeding or discharge
Upper chest congestion
Unusual hoarseness
Unusual bleeding or discharge
166
Generic name of Cytoxan is
Codeine
Cyclophosphamide
Doxorubicin
Adriamycin
Cyclophosphamide
167
Which one of the following functions is the responsibility of the lymphatic system?
Sending and receiving signals involved in the immune process
Destroying and removing old red blood cells
Serving as the first line of defense against bacteria
Providing a physical barrier to microorganisms.
Destroying and removing old red blood cells
168
One possible reason an immune system might be weak is because of
Heart disease and drugs such as statins
Alzheimer’s disease
An HIV infection
Diabetes and therapies such as insulin
An HIV infection
169
The term apoptosis is related to
Identifying pathogens to be destroyed
The production of antibodies
The death of a cell
The circulation of lymph
The death of a cell
170
B-cells mature in
Bone marrow
The brain
The heart
The thymus
Bone marrow
171
The generic name of Doxorubicin is
Adriamycin
Cyclophosphamide
Cytoxan
Codeine
Adriamycin
172
______ produce antibodies as part of an adaptive immunity.
AB-cells
Z-cells
B-cells
A-cells
B-cells
173
