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Earth System- 29992 > Sedimentary practical's (pre-reading) > Flashcards

Sedimentary practical's (pre-reading) Flashcards

1
Q

What are poorly sorted sediments?

A

when the grains are of varying sizes

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2
Q

What are well sorted sediments?

A

when the grains are all about the same size

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3
Q

How does rounding occur?

A

when the sharp edges of rock is worn down by abrasion when transported

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4
Q

What does the speed of sediment rounding depend upon?

A

hardness and composition

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5
Q

What are ripples and what do they reflect?

A

Type of bedform
Reflect flow (direction and energy)

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6
Q

What 2 types of sediment ripple are there?

A

Symmetrical
Asymmetrical

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7
Q

How do symmetrical ripples form?

A

oscillatory flow (on a beach)
Forward and back current flow

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8
Q

Where do asymmetrical ripples form?

A

areas with unidirectional flow (rivers or beach’s with dominant current direction)

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9
Q

What is a facie?

A

distinctive sedimentary rock packet with distinctive sedimentary features

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10
Q

What are lithofacies?

A

facies based on sediment characteristics such as grain size and minerology

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11
Q

What are biofacies?

A

facies based on fossil content

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12
Q

What can form when facies interact?

A

facie association or succeed one another to form facie sequence

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13
Q

What is Walthers law?

A

states vertical succession of facies reflects lateral environment change

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14
Q

What are good examples of vertical stratigraphic succession?

A

Marine transgressions (sea level rise)
and
Marine regression (sea level fall)

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15
Q

What is another name for ‘rock layers’?

A

strata

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16
Q

What are Nicolaus Stenos 4 principles of stratigraphy?

A

Principle of superposition
Principle of original horizontal
Event that cuts across exiting strata is younger
Strata presumed to continue laterally from present end point

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17
Q

What is subsidence?

A

local and regional scale change in earths crust in the form of a downward shift

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18
Q

When do rift basins form?

A

When the continental crust is stretched
During early rifting earth surface subsides as its stretched and thinned

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19
Q

What is a good example of a rift basin?

A

the east African rift system

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20
Q

What sort of area will intracratonic basins form?

A

Interior of continents away from plate margins and mountain belts

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21
Q

What are intracratonic basins usually like?

A

round or oval in shape
Long geological history of low subsidence

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22
Q

What is one formation theory for intracratonic basins from rifting?

A

Form over areas of previous rifting
Rifting stops and hot stretched crust cools it contracts and shrinks (thermal sag)

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23
Q

What 2 things can intracratonic basins be filled with?

A

Continental sediment
Flooding from adjacent ocean

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24
Q

What can the flooding of a intracratonic basin form?

A

Epicontinental seas

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25
Q

Where do passive margin basins form?

A

form along the margin of continents that are not tectonic plate boundaries

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26
Q

What sediments are associated with passive margin basins?

A

Carbonate and clastic 10-20km thick

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27
Q

What is a good example of modern passive margin basin?

A

Gulf of Mexico margin along southern USA

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28
Q

What are foreland basins associated with?

A

Regions of compressional tectonics and form adjacent and parallel to mountain belts

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29
Q

How are foreland basins created?

A

Downward flexing of lithosphere in response to mountain belt

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30
Q

Where does sediment come from for foreland basins?

A

sediment eroded off adjacent mountain belt

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31
Q

What will the transition of sediment in a foreland basin be like?

A

from deep marine to continental being in excess of 10km

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32
Q

What is a good example of a foreland basin?

A

Persian gulf - adjacent to Zagros mountains of Iran

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33
Q

How are strike-slip faults classified?

A

by a horizontal sense of movement along the fault plane

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34
Q

What types of sediment can strike slip basins be filled with?

A

continental or marine sediments

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35
Q

What are some examples of modern strike-slip basins?

A

San Andreas Fault in California

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36
Q

How do you transition from an igneous to sedimentary rock?

A

Igneous- weathering/erosion- Sediment-lithication- Sedimentary rock

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37
Q

What is sediment?

A

collective term for loose fragments of rock or minerals that originate from weathering and erosion of pre-existing rock
OR
Precipitation out of solution

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38
Q

What is unconsolidated sediment?

A

Each grain is separate and not cemented together

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39
Q

What are the main transportation methods for sediment?

A

Wind
Ice
Water
Gravity

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40
Q

What is rounding of sediment?

A

when rock fragments bump and scrape each other removing corners and angular edges

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41
Q

What is sorting?

A

the process by which sediment grains are selected and separated according to size during transportation

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42
Q

What is glacial sediment sorting like?

A

Poorly sorted

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43
Q

What type of sediment will be well sorted?

A

windblown sediments of a sand dune

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44
Q

What is the scale for roundness?

A

Angular
Sub-angular
Sub-rounded
Rounded

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45
Q

What is the scale for sorting?

A

Very poorly sorted
Poorly sorted
Moderately sorted
Well sorted
Very well sorted

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46
Q

What is lithification?

A

when loose unconsolidated sediment changes into sedimentary rock

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47
Q

What 2 main processes form lithification?

A

compaction
cementation

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48
Q

What is compaction when forming sedimentary rock?

A

loose grains are packed together more tightly

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49
Q

What is cementation when forming sedimentary rock?

A

precipitation of a new mineral around sediment grain binds them into a firm coherent rock

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50
Q

What are biogenic sedimentary rocks derived from?

A

skeletal remains and soft organic matter of pre-existing organisms.

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51
Q

What are organic sedimentary rocks composed of?

A

organic carbon compounded from relicts of plant material

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52
Q

How are chemo-genic rocks formed?

A

direct precipitation of minerals from a saturated solution

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53
Q

What are volcanoclastic sedimentary rocks composed of?

A

Grains and fragments derived from volcanic activity

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54
Q

What is the make up of sedimentary rocks on earth?

A

70-85%= clastic
15-25%= biogenic

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55
Q

What are conglomerates and breccias?

A

rocks formed through cementation of rounded (conglomerate) or angular (breccia)

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56
Q

What is the grain size scale? (Just names: bit to small)

A

Pebble
Granule
Coarse sand
Medium sand
Fine sand
Silt
Clay

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57
Q

What is the grain size range for clastic sedimentary rocks?

A

conglomerate and breccia to fine grained mudrock

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58
Q

How are clastic sedimentary rocks classified?

A

size of individual rock fragments and/or grain size

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59
Q

How are sandstones characterised?

A

medium grained sedimentary rocks containing more than 50% sand size grains

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60
Q

What is the most common mineral in sandstone?

A

Quartz

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61
Q

What different types of sandstone can occur?

A

Quartz arenites
Arkose
Lithic sandstone
Greywacke

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62
Q

What % quartz is quartz arenites?

A

95

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63
Q

How are grains usually arranged within quartz arenite?

A

well sorted and rounded as a product of extensive sediment reworking so all gains beside quartz broken down

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64
Q

What are arkose?

A

A sandstone which contains at least 25% feldspar

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65
Q

What type of source rocks are arkose from?

A

Feldspar rich:
- Granites
- Gneiss

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66
Q

What are Litharenites?

A

25% of all different sandstone types
Rock fragments in excess of feldspar

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67
Q

What is the grain arrangement like in litharenites?

A

Poorly sorted
Sub-rounded to sub-angular

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68
Q

What does the immature sandstone composition of litharenites imply?

A

short to moderate transport distance
High rates deposition

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69
Q

What is an example of a high rate deposition area litharenites might be deposited?

A

deltaic deposition environment

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70
Q

What are greywackes?

A

sandstones with at least 15% fine grained muddy matrix between quartz grains

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71
Q

How did most greywackes probably form?

A

Turbidity currents - sediment gravity flow

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72
Q

What is limestone formed from?

A

skeletal fragments of calcite or aragonite

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73
Q

What are crinoids? (crinoidal limestone)

A

Sea animals that had long stems cup-like bodies and long filter arms abundant in the Palaeozoic

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74
Q

Where do ooids form from?

A

direct precipitation of carbonate from warm, supersaturated, shallow, highly agitated marine water creating sub spherical sand size grains

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75
Q

What is the mechanism of formation for ooids?

A

Small ‘seed’ fragment of sedimentary rock
Strong currents was seed around sea bed where chemically precipitate calcite is accumulated

76
Q

What is a carbonate sediment composed of ooids called?

A

oolite

77
Q

What is an ancient example of oolite

A

Middle Jurassic age (135 million years ago) bath stone used in many buildings in bath

78
Q

How does dolomite differ from limestone?

A

the limestone has been replaced by dolomite in the process of dolomitization

79
Q

What is coal?

A

organic sedimentary rock that results from compaction and burial of plant material that has not fully decayed.

80
Q

What are the general characteristics of coal?

A

brown to black
soft to hard
low density

81
Q

Why is coal economically important?

A

its key role in energy generation

82
Q

What are oil shales/ black shales?

A

when organic matter mixes with mud and can be incorporated into mudrocks

83
Q

How do evaporites form?

A

Directly from the precipitation of crystals from water following salt concentration from evaporation

84
Q

What are the main types of evaporite mineral?

A

Gypsum
Anhydrite
Halite

85
Q

What are crystals within evaporites like?

A

Crystalline texture
Crystal size varies depending on salt concentration

86
Q

How do pyroclastic flows usually move?

A

Hug the ground
Downhill or laterally (under gravity)

87
Q

What is the speed of pyroclastic flows dependent on?

A

Density of current rock and gas debris
Volcanic output rate
Slope gradient

88
Q

What is the volcanic output rate?

A

total rate of magma emplacement and volcanic output for the Earth

89
Q

What is pyroclastic surges?

A

pyroclastic flows which contain a much higher proportion of gas to rock

90
Q

What is a pyroclastic fall?

A

lower density flow which allows them to flow over higher topographic features such as ridges and hills

91
Q

What is a lahar?

A

A type of volcanic mudflow or debris flow composed of slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky debris and water

92
Q

What is diagenesis?

A

All physical, chemical and biological changes that occur during burial but before metamorphism

93
Q

What is lithification?

A

when sediment hardens into rock

94
Q

What is the physical process that occurs with diagenesis?

A

compaction of components due to pressure increase on burial

95
Q

What is the chemical process that occurs with diagenesis?

A

precipitation of of mineral cements from pore fluids

96
Q

What can occur to sediment with continued burial?

A

dewatering and compaction leading to closer packing

97
Q

How much can mudrock be compacted by burial?

A

90% (coarser grain 40-50%)

98
Q

How old are precambrian rocks?

A

540 million years

99
Q

What are geopetals useful for?

A

paleohorizontal level
As will have a void space (air) filled with mudrock showing the top

100
Q

What is the difference between beds and Laminae?

A

Beds= thicker than 1cm
Laminae= thinner than 1cm

101
Q

What are the different scales of bed? (largest to smallest)

A

Very thick = >100cm
Thick = 30-100cm
Medium = 10-30cm
Thin = 3-10 cm
Very thin = 1-3cm

102
Q

What are the different scales of laminae? (largest to smallest)

A

Thick = 0.6-1cm
Medium = 0.3-0.6cm
Thin= 0.1-0.3cm
Very thin= <0.1cm

103
Q

How do erosional structures tend to form?

A

the actions of erosive currents with the removal of sediment to form the structure

104
Q

What are flute clasts also known as?

A

scour marks

105
Q

What are flute clasts/ where do they occur?

A

occur on the underside of many beds deposited by sediment laden flows or storm currents

106
Q

What do flute clasts look like?

A

heel shape - bulbous upstream end which flares downstream to merge with bedding

107
Q

How do flutes form?

A

localised erosion of sand laden currents passing over cohesive muds

108
Q

How are tool marks formed?

A

when an object i.e. a pebble is carried by a moving current and impacts/scrapes along a sediment surface

109
Q

What are examples of discontinuous tool marks?

A

prod, bounce, skip and roll markings associated with turbulent flows

110
Q

What are examples of more continuous tool marks?

A

Grooves and chevrons

111
Q

Who was first to pioneer the use of ancient raindrops left in sediment?

A

Charles Lyell 1851

112
Q

How are bedforms formed?

A

the interactions of sediment and wind or water on a bed surface

113
Q

What is an example of a bedform?

A

ripples in the sand in a flowing stream

114
Q

What are the characteristics of current ripples?

A

asymmetrical in cross section
Down current slope (lee) steeper than the up-current slope (stoss)

115
Q

What are the different ways that ripples can be seen in plan view?

A

Straight
Undulatory (long waved laterally)
Catenary (short waved laterally)
Linguid (horse shoe like)

116
Q

What are the dimensions of current ripples?

A

2-5cm in height
up to ~40cm wavelength

117
Q

What are dunes/ how are they created?

A

Larger bedform that is formed due to increased current speed

118
Q

What are the dimensions of dunes?

A

1m high
0.5m to 10m wave length

119
Q

Why are bedforms found at the higher flowrates hardly preserved in the geological record?

A

as they are usually reworked as soon as flow speed decreases

120
Q

How are wave ripples produced?

A

by the oscillatory motion of waves in shallow marine and intertidal settings

121
Q

How are wave ripples different from current ripples?

A

they are symmetrical

122
Q

How is hummocky cross stratification (HCS) produced?

A

when oscillatory wave generated flows produced by the passage of storms with large storm waves creating a large undulatory bedform

123
Q

What form will HCS take?

A

hummocks (small mound) and swales (shallow channel)

124
Q

What will the size of HCS be?

A

wavelength of 1-5m
height a few tens of cm

125
Q

What is normal grading?

A

coarser sediments at the base which grade up to finer ones

126
Q

What will normal grading be evidence if for deposition environment?

A

one in which transport energy has decreased over time

127
Q

What is inverse grading?

A

when grain size increases up the bed

128
Q

Where is inverse grading most common?

A

debris falls and aeolian ripples

129
Q

What is bioturbation?

A

when there is a irregular disruption of sediment

130
Q

What are trace fossils?

A

discrete organised markings in the sediment

130
Q

What are stromatolites?

A

direct biogenic growth structures

130
Q

What are some examples of trace fossils?

A

record the action of organism in the environment so: burrowing, walking and feeding

131
Q

What is another name for trace fossils?

A

ichnology

132
Q

What is each group of distinct trace fossil called?

A

ichnofacies

133
Q

What is an example of a regular burrow network trace fossil?

A

Paleodictyon

133
Q

What is an example of a resting/ crawling trace fossil?

A

Rusophycos and Cruziana

134
Q

What is an example of a vertical U-tube with spreite trace fossil?

A

Diplocraterion

135
Q

What is an example of a straight tube trace fossil?

A

Skolithos

136
Q

What is an examples of a branching dwelling burrow trace fossil?

A

Thalassinoides

137
Q

What is an examples of horizontal- subhorizontal U-tube with spreite trace fossil?

A

Rhizocorallium

138
Q

What are the 5 commonly considered continental sedimentary environments?

A

Glacial
Alluvial fan
River
Lake
Hot desert

139
Q

How much of land is covered by glacial ice?

A

10%

140
Q

Where will a glacier get material/ sediment?

A

falling from adjacent cliffs or plucked from the underlying rocks

141
Q

How do glacial striations form?

A

this is when large boulders carried by a glacier carve long scratches into the underlying rock

142
Q

What is the deposited material from a glacier called?

A

Glacial till

143
Q

How do alluvial fans form?

A

when a stream emerges from mountains onto flatter plains material is deposited in broad fan or cone shaped deposits

144
Q

What will alluvial fans be like in semi-arid environments?

A

their radius will be between 2-15km

145
Q

What sediments are related to alluvial fans?

A

conglomerates
breccias
sandstones
Lesser amount mudstone

146
Q

What is the classification of a desert?

A

less than 250mm rain per year
Vegetation covering less than 15% land

147
Q

What are ventifacts?

A

rocks whose surface has been faceted by wind

148
Q

What is the characteristic sedimentary structure in desert sandstone?

A

large scale cross bedding and absence of finer grained sediments

149
Q

What are ancient desert dune sandstones like?

A

highly porous so make excellent resevoirs for water and hydrocarbons

150
Q

What is one of the characteristic features of lake sediments?

A

the presence of millimetre scale rhythmic laminations

151
Q

What are ephemeral lakes?

A

a lake which might remain flooded for shirt time but might not be present if flooding has not occurred

152
Q

What are ephemeral lakes characterised by?

A

evaporitic sediments
mud cracks
fossil fish

153
Q

What are red beds?

A

this is when river sediment is deposited in a semi-arid climate which reacts with oxygen in surface/ ground waters to produce rust like iron oxides

154
Q

What sedimentary structures are found in the delta front?

A

sands with crossbedding, ripples and bioturbation

155
Q

What is the pro-delta characterised by?

A

organic rich, laminated, and bioturbated mudstones

156
Q

What is deposition and delta migration like at the delta front?

A

rapid deposition resulting in seaward migration

157
Q

How will wave action affect sediments on a beach?

A

wave action will winnow (blow/ remove) mud and silt to produce well sorted well rounded grains of sandstone

158
Q

What is a lagoon?

A

semi-enclosed quiet shallow body of water between a barrier island or reef and the mainland

159
Q

What sediment are lagoons typically dominated by?

A

Muds
some cross bedded sand (storm washover)

160
Q

How can lime muds and limestone be found in lagoonal sediment?

A

associated with coral patch reefs

161
Q

What are oolites?

A

distinctive carbonate sedimentary rock

162
Q

Where do oolites form?

A

highly agitated intertidal environments

163
Q

How do oolites form?

A

small fragment of sediment “seed” which are washed on the seabed accumulating layers of chemically precipitated calcite

164
Q

What is the main source of sediment for the deep sea?

A

from the continental shelf via transportation by slumps and slides which cause turbidity currents

165
Q

What is the Bouma sequence?

A

A sequence identified by Arnold Bouma for dividing deep water turbidity’s into intervals

166
Q

How does the Bouma sequence look?

A

divided into 5 intervals A to E
A is the bottom E is the top

167
Q

What are body fossils?

A

ones which represent the actual remains of a once living organism

168
Q

What are some general examples of body fossils?

A

Shells
Bones
Teeth
Claws

169
Q

What is a coprolite?

A

fossilised faeces

170
Q

What are chemical fossils?

A

chemicals found in rocks that provide an organic signature for life

171
Q

What are microfossils?

A

ones to small to be seen with the naked eye or a hand lens so a microscope must be used they are usually (1mm or less)

172
Q

What are the 4 main areas of microfossils?

A

calcareous microfossils
siliceous microfossils
phosphatic microfossils
organic microfossils

173
Q

What are some examples of calcareous microfossils?

A

foraminifera
coccolithis

174
Q

What are some examples of siliceous microfossils?

A

diatoms
radiolarians

175
Q

What are some examples of phosphatic microfossils?

A

conodonts

176
Q

What are some examples of organic microfossils?

A

pollen and spores

177
Q

What are fossil lagerstatten?

A

fossil sites with exceptional preservation sometimes including preserved soft tissue

178
Q

What is the oil window?

A

the narrow range of temperatures in which oil forms

179
Q

What are reservoir rocks?

A

rocks which contain an abundant amount of easily accessible oil and gas

180
Q

What characteristics must a reservoir rock have?

A

sufficient pore space for oil and gas to reside

181
Q

What are the most common reservoir rocks and why?

A

Sandstone and limestone due to permeability and porosity which allows oil to migrate and be stored

182
Q

What are banded iron formations (BIF)?

A

these are formed due to alternating bands of grey iron oxide minerals and bright red chert

183
Q

What are BIFs important in showing?

A

formed between 2.5-1.8 billion years which shows not enough dissolved iron in seawater after 1.8bn years ago

184
Q

What are placer deposits?

A

found in rivers where the moving water has mechanically concentrated minerals formed by gravity separation

Earth System- 29992 (24 decks)

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