scientific inquiry and research methods

Question 1

scientific methodologies

Answer 1

scientific methodologies are the specific techniques used to collect and analyse date.

Question 2

types of scientific methologies

Answer 2

• case study
• classification and identification
• controlled experiment
• correlational study
• fieldwork
• literature review
• modelling
• product, process or system development
• simulation

Question 3

case study

Answer 3

examining a real or hypothetical situation and conduct an in-depth analysis of causes
and consequences in the real world’ as opposed to in a lab setting. For this reason, case studies
generate rich information and can provide insights into rare or uncommon conditions within the
population, though they can be quite time-consuming.

Question 4

classification and identification

Answer 4

involves sorting ideas or behaviours into sets based on similarity
in order to better understand underlying concepts or form theories.

Question 5

controlled experminet

Answer 5

this is likely the methodology you are most familiar with as it describes
an experimental investigation into the relationship between an independent variable and dependent
variable. This should occur in a highly controlled environment to minimise extraneous variables and
ensures researchers adhere to the scientific method so that results are valid and reproducible.
Typically, a controlled experiment will consist of an experimental condition where participants are
exposed to the effects of the independent variable, and a control condition where there is no
independent variable. This allows us to compare the results from the experimental condition with
the control to assess whether the independent variable caused a change.

Question 6

3 main types of controlled experiment

Answer 6

• between subjects design
• within subjects design
• mixed design

Question 7

between subjects design

Answer 7

allocates participants so that they are either in the experimental
group or the control group. This can be by random allocation or matched pairings (so the
experimenter can pair participants with similar characteristics to reduce participant differences).

Question 8

advantages and disadvantages of between subjects design

Answer 8

• Advantage: can be completed quickly so the likelihood of participants withdrawing is low.
  If participants are paired up, the results are less likely to be confounded.
• Disadvantage: often requires a large number of participants to ensure that participant
  variation (differences) in the sample will be representative of that of the population. It can
  also take a long time to find a matching pair, and one participant’s results may have to be
  discarded if their partner drops out.

Question 9

within subjects design

Answer 9

one participant is exposed to both the experimental and control
conditions of the study.

Question 10

advantages and disadvantage of within subject design

Answer 10

• Advantage: less individual participant differences across conditions as the same person
  is going through both the experimental and control condition.
• Disadvantage: the order of conditions that the participant experiences may affects their
  performance; one condition could allow them to practice or improve upon a skill that helps
  them in the second condition, thereby affecting the results.

Question 11

mixed design

Answer 11

this involves a combination of the above two designs. Usually, this means par-
ticipants are sorted into two groups and exposed to both conditions, but multiple measurements
are made of each participant to track results over time.

Question 12

advantages and disadavtanges of mixed design

Answer 12

• Advantage: provides a greater amount of data and minimises the chance of order effects
• Disadvantage: typically more time-consuming, so participants may be more likely to drop
  out. It also does not account for individual differences or variation between participants.

Question 13

correlational study

Answer 13

observing variables that have not been controlled in order to examine wither
a relationship exists between them (and if so, how strong the correlation is). A positive correlation
means that two variables are related in the same direction (e.g. increased exposure to study notes
and increased memory retention) whereas a negative correlation means the relationship goes in the
opposite direction (e.g. increased time spent meditating and decreased stress levels).

Question 14

fieldowrk

Answer 14

observing a naturalistic setting as opposed to a controlled environment like a lab. This
can make it easier to generalise results since it is more representative of ‘real life, though it also
means the variables are uncontrolled and thus we cannot draw specific conclusions about cause and
effect. One type of fieldwork you may explore in class is yarning circles which are used in First
Nations cultures to exchange ideas and reflect on information as a community.

Question 15

literature review

Answer 15

collecting, analysing, and evaluating other research. This might be to shed light
on prior investigations or to create new ideas by synthesising existing material. Literature reviews
are useful in advancing the field of psychology but can be difficult if there is insufficient or outdated
material about a specific concept.

Question 16

modelling

Answer 16

constructing a representation of psychological phenomena to aid understanding. This
is a useful explanatory tool as it can make complex or abstract concepts easier to grasp through
physical or conceptual simplifications.

Question 17

product, process or system development

Answer 17

developing something that draws upon scientific
knowledge (e.g. a sleep and meditation app).

Question 18

simulation

Answer 18

a technological representation of hypothetical cause-and-effect relationships. Simula-
tons are ideal for investigations that cannot be conducted as experiments or fieldwork because it is
too dangerous or impractical (e.g. simulating the effects of 100+ hours of sleep deprivation on the
human brain).

Question 19

sampling techniques

Answer 19

• random sampling
• stratified sampling
• random stratified sampling

Question 20

random sampling

Answer 20

this is a sampling procedure where every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected to be a part of the sample in the study.

Question 21

random allocation of participants to groups

Answer 21

this means all participants who have been
selected for the study must have an equal chance of being the experimental group or the
control group. Typically, randomising allocation will also result in a random and hence balanced
distribution of individual participant differences between the two groups.

Question 22

stratified sampling

Answer 22

this involves dividing the population into specific sub-groups and then selecting
a separate sample from each sub-group (in the same proportions as they occur in the population).
For example:
1. Take a population (e.g. secondary school students).
2. Divide them into layers or ‘strata’ (e.g. Year 7, Year 8, Year 9… Year 12).
3. Choose a few students from each strata according to your research need (e.g. high-performing
mathematical students from each year level). These few students from each strata (year level)
have now become your stratified sample.

Question 23

random stratified sampling

Answer 23

this is the same as stratified sampling except that in the last stage of
selection, you are randomly selecting the students from each year level.
1. Again, we take a population (e.g. secondary school students).
2. Divide them into layers or ‘strata’ (e.g. Year 7, Year 8, Year 9… Year 12).
3. Randomly select a few students from each strata (in the same proportions as they occur in
the population) so that every student in each of the year levels has an equal chance of being
selected to be in the study! These few randomly selected students from each strata (year level)
have now become your random-stratified sample!

Question 24

variables

Answer 24

• independent
• dependent
• extranous
• confounding

Question 25

independent variable

Answer 25

this is the variable that an experimenter deliberately changes in order to observe an effect.

Question 26

dependent variable

Answer 26

this is the variable that is measured and will depend on how the experimenter changes the independent variable.

Question 27

extranous variable

Answer 27

this is an external factor or influence which could potentially affect the dependent variable. However, in most cases, extraneous variables are identified early in the study and are controlled for, so they don't often go on to actually impact the DV and results of the study. An extraneous variable that is successfully identified and addressed then becomes a controlled variable, meaning the experimenter has removed any potential effects it may have on the DV.

Question 28

confounding variable

Answer 28

this is a factor or influence which has influenced the DV and thus impacted the results of study. In other words, it is a variable that has 'slipped through' and not been controlled for. It has had a measurable effect on the results, but this variable is not the one we wanted to measure, thereby negatively impacting the validity of the investigation.

Question 29

data and measurement analysis key concepts

Answer 29

- accuracy - precisions - repeatability - reproducibility - validity (external and internal)

Question 30

accuracy

Answer 30

refers to how close a measurement is to its true value (e.g. conducting an EEG with faulty equipment may lead to inaccurate results as the machine displays incorrect values).

Question 31

precision

Answer 31

refers to how close together a set of measurements are (e.g. conducting three trials to test a person's short-term memory and observing scores of 7, 8, and 7 items recalled, as opposed to results of 3, 44, and 17).

Question 32

repeatability

Answer 32

refers to the extent to which the results derived from a study are consistent, dependable, and stable (e.g. if the same experimenter did the same study again, under the same conditions, they should be getting consistent results).

Question 33

reproducibility

Answer 33

refers to how consistent the results are under different conditions (e.g. with a different experimenter/observer, or with a sample group from a different cultural background). This can tell us whether results can be generalised, or whether the original results lack credibility.

Question 34

validity

Answer 34

can refer to either the measurements (i.e. we measure what we're supposed to be measuring) or the overall research itself:

Question 35

internal validity

Answer 35

whether the research successfully investigates what it claims to investigate. This requires us to evaluate the research and any potential biases or confounding variables. If the research is not internally valid, then we don't even consider external validity.

Question 36

external validity

Answer 36

whether the research can be applied to a different setting, such as by using different sampling techniques or by testing a more diverse population.

Question 37

ethical concepts

Answer 37

- beneficience - integrity - justice - non-malefiecience - respect

Question 38

beneficence

Answer 38

meaning 'to do good, this refers to minimising harm while maximising the benefit of an experiment. In other words, the experiment should yield useful information of benefit to the field of psychology, but must not do so in a way that traumatises or hurts the participants or researchers.

Question 39

integrity

Answer 39

this refers to being honest and honourable in conducting an experiment, recording findings, and giving credit. This is essential for the sake of psychological studies as a whole.

Question 40

justice

Answer 40

this refers to doing what is fair and equitable. Again, this applies to both participants and researchers and ensures no one is severely inconvenienced or has their rights infringed upon.

Question 41

non- maleficence

Answer 41

similar to beneficence, this means 'don't do evil!' Although some elements of deception or discomfort may be necessary, experimenters should never set out to wilfully cause harm or to do something with a disproportionately negative outcome.

Question 42

respect

Answer 42

Respect: involves honouring the life and happiness of other living things. This is especially true for people with different beliefs, customs, or cultures, such as respecting the self-determination of Abo- riginal and Torres Strait Islander people. This also applies to the conduct of experimenters/observers towards the participants

Question 43

ethical guidlines and experiments must follow

Answer 43

- protection and security of participants rights - voluntary participation - informed consent - deception - confidentiality - debfriening - withdrawal rights

Question 44

protection and security of participants rights

Answer 44

researchers must respect participants interests and needs, and endeavour to ensure that their safety and wellbeing is maintained at all stages of the experiment, including after the experiment has concluded.

Question 45

voluntary participation

Answer 45

participants should be involved in the study by their own will and choice They should not be coerced or pressured to sign up to a research study. You can think of this as applying to both positive and negative reinforcement

Question 46

informed consent

Answer 46

participants must be provided with information about the study prior to its commencement. Specifically, they need to be told about the nature and purpose of the study, any potential risks involved, information about any tasks/procedures, their withdrawal rights, and they must consent (by signing the consent form). Since there must be informed consent, it is not enough for the participants to have simply said "yes" - they have to know what they are saying yes to, and the burden is on the experimenter to ensure all participants are adequately informed before consenting.

Question 47

deception

Answer 47

this is the act of withholding particular information about the study, as revealing this information to participants might cause them to act differently which could confound the results (DV). Deception is acceptable in some studies but the experimenter must ensure that it does not cause participants significant distress or trauma and all participants must be debriefed about all withheld information at the end of the study during debriefing.

Question 48

confidentiality

Answer 48

Confidentiality: the experimenter must ensure that participants (and their results) are not identifiable in any way. They must store and secure data and participant details in a safe and private manner. The participant must also be told that their participation will be highly confidential. This also means that researchers cannot simply publish raw results in research papers or on the internet.

Question 49

debriefing

Answer 49

this happens after the study has been completed and participants are informed of the results and conclusions of the study. Any of their misconceptions about the study are also corrected and clarified and any withheld information (if deception was necessary) is revealed to them. Also, participants are given information about any counselling services they might need and how they can access these facilities.

Question 50

withdrawal rights

Answer 50

this means participants should be able to withdraw from or leave the experiment at any time, as well as withdraw their results after the study, regardless of any possible impacts on the study. They need to be informed of this right as part of the informed consent procedure, and they can exercise this right at any stage where they feel uncomfortable or unwilling to continue.