REVIEW QUESTIONS Flashcards
How would you define a language?
- system of linguistic communication particular to a group: spoken, written, signed
- express feelings, thoughts, ideas and experiences
- rule-governed system of linguistic communication particular to a community
How would you define society?
group of people drawn together for a certain purpose
What correlations can you see between language and society?
How can we define the term “sociolinguistic?”
wider: role of language in society
narrow: correlations between independent social variables and dependent linguistic variables
Can you think of any linguistic variables?
- What problems can occur when gathering linguistic data during fieldwork?
- How can this overcome?
- Observer’s paradox
- Feeling comfortable or anonymous
What is a “linguistic standard”?
- prestigious norm of a language which:
> spans regional borders
> used in public or formal occasions (social prestige)
> used in the media
> codified in reference grammars/dictionaries
> basis for foreign language teaching
What is Standard English?
- Prestige dialect
- Official/formal settings
- Writing in education system
What is standardisation?
The process, often imposed by institutions or through the education
system, of marking out a language variety as the approved and
sanctioned form
What is Standard Language Ideology?
The perspective that insists upon the rightness of standardisation,
often with an associated moral injunction to use the standard form in
all settings; ideology that one dialect is superior to others.
What is Correctness?
Consciousness among speakers of a ‘correct’, or canonical, form of
language; evaluative view as to the ‘correct’ way in which language
should be used
What different major types of linguistic varieties are there?
- regiolect = national variety, regional dialect
- sociolect: social
- temporal: time period
- functional: style, register, genre
What is the difference between “accent” and “dialect”?
- Accent: pronunciation
- Dialect: pronunciation, grammar, lexis
Describe both an ELF and an EFL situation
- ELF: articipants are of varying language-cultural
backgrounds, many are non-native speakers, and therefore correctness
is not particularly important as long as people understand each other - EFL: ne cultural-linguistic background dominates
and non-native speakers/learners expect and are expected to conform
linguistically and pragmatically to its norms, e.g. while travelling to
another country
here is a discussion about the relative advantages of native and non-
native speakers of English as teachers of the language. What advantages
occur to you of each type of competence?
- native speakers of English have the advantages of accuracy and
fluency. If their education has given them a mastery of standard English they
can be confident that their grammar judgements are correct, and they can use
their fluency to be spontaneous and even amusing - Non-native teachers have the advantages of multilingualism and, having
learned the language themselves, they understand better the process the
pupils are going through, have explicit knowledge of English grammar, and
often know the pupils’ L1 better so that they can explain errors and resolve
problems more effectively
Australia, India, and Sweden have been called English-speaking countries. How
are they different (remember the circles model)?
- Australia is an inner-circle country. Most people are highly proficient in English
and English is used in education, politics and law, and for all other purposes. Most
people do not speak other languages well and have to use English for speaking to
people from other countries - India is an outer-circle country. Many people are highly proficient in English,
many are not; English is used in education, politics, and law, and for interaction with
Indians with a different mother-tongue, but the mother tongue is used for most other
purposes. Indian languages are not well known world-wide, so even though most are
multilingual, Indians have to use English for speaking to people from other countries - Sweden is an expanding-circle country. Many people are highly proficient in
English. English is used to some extent in higher education, but the mother tongue is
used for most other purposes. Swedish is not well known world-wide, and nowadays
French and German are not very widely known in Sweden, so Swedes have to use
English for speaking to people from other countries
Think of some new words in English and describe their origin
- Borrowing, e.g. vuvuzela (from the Tswana language in Southern Africa).
- Derivation, e.g. with the suffix –gate (‘extracted’ from the 1970s American political
scandal of Watergate), denoting an actual or alleged scandal, usually with an
attempted coverup, as in Camillagate. - Conversion (‘zero derivation’), e.g.
mushroom as a verb: Her hobby mushroomed into a thriving business
What is a social variable?
factor that is used to identify one group of speakers as different
from another (e.g. age, class, gender, region etc.).
What is a Linguistic Variable?
- linguistic structure with two or more realisations (variants) which
correlate with speakers’ social status. - Linguistic Variable is “dependent” on the Social Variable, as it
changes when the “independent” Social Variable changes.
Do you have an example for the second type of hypercorrection?
She invited John and I to the party.
There are a number of examples where groups have reclaimed
negative words and given those words a positive sense for ingroup use,
e.g. homosexuals reclaiming queer.
bitch, nerd, geek, redneck, Chicano.
Where and why may divergence occur?
How would you define “politeness”
The actions taken by competent speakers in a community in order
to attend to possible social or interpersonal disturbance
What do you consider polite in a conversation?
introducing yourself when you meet someone for the first time;
saying you can’t come to someone’s place for dinner because you’re
too busy (not because you find them too boring); softening criticism
with comments about something good
What do you consider impolite in a conversation?
talking too long about something you are interested in but
others aren’t; not acknowledging someone when they arrive; not
acknowledging a mistake
What is a First Language (L1)?
Language acquired during early childhood (ca. before age of three)
What is a Second Language (L2)?
officially or societally dominant language (but not speaker’s L1)
needed for education, employment and other basic purposes, e.g.
English in India
What is a Foreign Language?
language that might be studied at school or be needed for future
communication, e.g. travel. [EFL = English as a foreign language]
What is the difference between formal learning and informal
learning?
- Formal learning = instructed conscious learning in classes or
courses - Informal learning = acquisition without formal instruction by
interacting with L1 or L2 speakers or by exposing oneself to media.
Which countries do you know where more than one language is
spoken?
Examples of India, Switzerland, Canada, Belgium etc
Why do people learn a second language?
- Historically: Invasion or conquest of one’s country by speakers of
another language - Need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or
other specific domains
What is the linguistic situation in the Scandinavian countries?
- Political divisions: Bosnian vs. Montenegrin (mutually intelligible
languages). - Political unity: Chinese (Mandarin and Cantonese not mutually
intelligible dialects). - Strict linguistic rules, sound changes, vocabulary and literature
Low German = language; Austrian German = dialect. - Script and religion: Hindi vs. Urdu (mutually intelligible languages).
- Social status or prestige: French and Haitian Creole (“bad French”?).
Problems in Language Distinction (repetition)
What is multilingualism?
- ability of a speaker or group of speakers to speak two or more
languages; sometimes used interchangeably with bilingualism
What is simultaneous multilingualism (incl. bilingualism)?
- acquisition of more than one native language during early
childhood
What is sequential multilingualism (incl. bilingualism)?
- acquisition of another language or other languages after native
language has been established
Can you give any examples of diglossia?
Modern Standard Arabic vs. Arabic dialects; German vs. Swiss
German (Switzerland); French and Haitian Creole (Haiti)
What do you think when someone borrows extensively from
languages or styles that they don’t (as it were) ‘natively’ command?
For example, if an English speaker uses words like hombre or mucho
in a predominantly English sentence?
All languages borrow words here and there when speakers come
into contact with a new thing or a new concept that they have no
words for in their native language. But some people find it patronising
or insincere if a speaker borrows easily translatable terms from a
language, especially if they do not fluently speak that language.
Why does language change?
How can language change be observed?
Language change may occur within an individual speaker as he/she
progresses through life?
What is the difference between sex and gender?
Can language be sexist?
What is Decreolisation?
When did English first have contact with other languages?
Which languages have had an impact on the English language?
Where in the world do other languages have contact with English?
In which semantic fields does the English language influence others?
When does the history of the English language begin?
When the Vikings invaded England in the 9th century why was it
comparatively easy for the English to communicate with them (unlike
with French after the Norman Conquest of 1066)?
The Vikings spoke Scandinavian languages and shared a great deal
of basic vocabulary and grammar with Old English, which must have
facilitated communication, even though there were striking differences
in morphology and phonology.
In what way did French ‘endanger’ English after the Norman
Conquest?
In 1066, French became the language of the ruling class, education,
law, and even literature (to start with), so knowing French gave
advantages and knowing English did not
What is a First Language (L1)
language acquired during early childhood (ca. before age of three)
What is a Second Language (L2)?
officially or societally dominant language (but not speaker’s L1)
needed for education, employment and other basic purposes, e.g.
English in India
What is a Foreign Language?
anguage that might be studied at school or be needed for future
communication
What is a Lingua Franca?
(non-native) language used as a form of communication between
two or more different speakers or groups of speakers who do not share
a common language.
What is an Auxiliary Language?
sometimes synonymous with lingua franca
more commonly a language that was specifically developed
rather than having evolved, generally with the purpose of being
politically and culturally neutral. -> sign language
What are the problems in language distinction?
- Political divisions: Bosnian vs. Montenegrin (mutually intelligible
languages). - Political unity: Chinese (Mandarin and Cantonese not mutually
intelligible dialects). - Strict linguistic rules, sound changes, vocabulary and literature
- Low German = language; Austrian German = dialect.
- Script and religion: Hindi vs. Urdu (mutually intelligible languages).
- Social status or prestige: French and Haitian Creole (“bad French”?).
Why has English become a global language (and not a different
language)?
The short answer is ‘imperialism’. English spread with the
extension of the British Empire and later with American dominance
Why is English a world language?
The status of English as a world language is exclusively a consequence of the activities of its speakers. In other words, it is not
because the language itself is intrinsically superior in some way to other languages, but because its speakers represent and have
represented nations with political, economic and cultural power as
well as imperialist policies
What is the difference between “accent” and “dialect”?
- Accent: Regionally or socially typical pronunciation, e.g. “English
with a Scottish accent” or “British urban working-class accents” - Dialect: Regionally or socially specific variety of a language
differing from the standard language in various ways, such as
pronunciation, grammar and lexis
By which features are dialects distinguished from one another?
- role of Isoglosses
Which linguistic features may appear as isoglosses?
- pronunciation
- grammar
- vocabulary
- meaning
What is the relationship between Standard English English and
RP?
RP can be defined as a standard accent, i.e. it refers exclusively to
pronunciation, whereas Standard English English, which can be called
a ‘dialect’ (although a very special one), refers to the standard
grammar and vocabulary that is used in writing throughout the UK
and Ireland and also which dominates spoken language in some
domains
How do they pronounce singer in the West Midlands?
WMidland singer (ng) -> g is also pronounced when morpheme-
final
How could a speaker from Wales pronounce the sentence I play for
Wales?
/əɪ plei fə weːlz/
Which characteristics of Welsh English are likely to derive from
Welsh (Cymric) substratum features?
Cymric substratum features:
the sing-song or „lilting“ intonation,
- the schwa in STRUT words,
- voiceless ɬ for ll
- voiceless /s/ for /z/ in the North
- some elements of grammar
What is the difference between Scots and Scottish Standard English?
Scots, which has a long history with rich written sources as early as
the Middle Ages, has the status of a language rather than a dialect and
is now recognised as a language by the European Bureau of Lesser
Used Languages. Scots has a grammar and vocabulary rather different
from that of Standard English English. It derives from a northern
dialect of Old English. Scots is spoken mainly in the Lowlands, in the
North-East of Scotland and on the Northern Isles.
Scottish Standard English (SSE) is basically a variety of Standard
English spoken with a Scottish accent and its vocabulary is
characterised by certain ‘Scotticisms’. It has a more southern origin
Explain Aitken’s Law (Scottish English Vowel Length Rule) in
relation to the words mess, mace, maze and rod, road, rove
The vowels of the following words would be short: mess and mace
(ending in a voiceless fricative), rod and road (ending in a plosive).
The vowels of the following words would be long: maze and rove
(ending in a voiced fricative)
Read the following text. What does it tell us about accent of
English in New England? (English from Cambridge, Mass., outside
Boston, hint: rhoticity, front START/PALM, realization of SQUARE)
We all know the American Cantabrigian who packs his ca neah
Havvad Squayah…
front short [a] (packs, Havvad); non-rhoticity (packs, ca, neah,
Havvad, Squayah); diphthong in SQUARE (Squayah) -> slightly
reminiscent of RP (exc. front [a])
Read the following text. What does it tell us about accent of
English in New York? (Brooklyn, NY, hint: rhoticity, intrusive /r/,
realization of NURSE, realization of /r/)
When I lived in my native heath, Brooklyn, I vose oily on Satiday
mawning, put erl in my cah – not the same as the New Englanders’s ca
– and dvove to the synagogue on Pennsylvaniav-Avenue to hear the
vabbi’s soimon…
non-rhoticity (as found in certain categories of speakers): (cah,
mawning); also intrusive r, a characteristic of non-rhotic accents
(Pennsylvaniav-Avenue); <er> pronounced as [ɔɪ] (oily, soimon) and,
conversely (a hypercorrection), <oi> pronounced as [ɜ:(r)] (erl); /r/
realised as [v], a stereotypical representation of Jewish speech (vose,
dvove, vabbi)</oi></er>
Read the following text. What does it tell us about accent of
English in the South? (Southern, hint: rhoticity, realization of DRESS
and SQUARE vowels)
Scahlett, my friend with the raid haia, says she was bawn in Jawja…
non-rhoticity (Scahlett, haia, bawn, Jawja); the ‘southern drawl’
(raid, haia).
