Review From TA’s On Lectures (midterm 2) Flashcards
Freebie :)
Doing great!
What is Echoic memory?
is the sensory memory that registers specific to auditory information
What is Haptic memory:
Haptic memory is the form of sensory memory specific to touch stimuli
What is Iconic memory:
visual sensory memory register
Traits of Short-Term Memory:
•Sensory memory -> attention
->short-term memory
•Prefrontal cortex
•20 to 30 seconds
•7 +/- 2 items
What is the Phonological loop?
Store for verbal information
•Phonological store
•Articulatory control loop
What is the Visuo-spatial sketchpad?
•Store for visual information
•Visual cache
•Inner scribe
What is the Episodic buffer?
•Integrating visual and verbal information
• Bridge between STM and LTM
•Conscious awareness
What is the Encoding specificity hypothesis?
Context similarity -> internal state, external environment
What are the two types of long term memory?
Explicit and implicit
What are the two types of explicit memory?
Episodic and semantic
What are the three types of implicit memory?
Procedural
Priming
Coniditioned
What is Episodic memory?
Ø Life events
Ø Retrieve encoding context
ØHippocampus
What is Semantic memory?
Ø Facts and general information
Ø No retrieval of encoding context
ØTemporal poles
What is Memory distortion?
Memory retrieval
-Instability
-Reconsolidation
How do Schemas influence memory distortion?
•Schemas
•War of Ghosts (Indigenous folk tale)
•False memories
Explain the two Distortion effects (Misattribution effect And Misinformation effect)
Misattribution effect: when a person incorrectly remembers the origin of their memory
Misinformation effect: when a person’s memory of an event becomes less accurate because they learn more facts after the event.
What is Procedural Memory?
•Automatic patterns of movement
•Striatum
•Prefrontal cortex
What is Priming?
•Prior exposure facilitates processing
•Word fragment completion task
•Implicit effect
What are Conditioned emotional responses?
Automatic response to emotional stimuli,
Amygdala,
Different thresholds
What is Semantic Memory?
Concepts and knowledge
•Episodic -> Semantic
What is Semantic network?
•Inter-connected concept network
•Units, Properties, Pointers
What is Spreading activation?
•Retrieval causes spreading activation
•Canary -> other birds
•Semantic priming
What are Heuristics?
•Mental short-cuts
•System 1 vs. System 2
What is the Availability heuristic?
•How familiar is something to us?
•Plane travel vs. Car travel
What is the Representativeness heuristic?
Similarity to existing mental prototype
•Student athlete vs. science student
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic?
•Over-reliance on initial information when making decisions
•Ex. Shopping prices
What is Regression towards the mean?
•Extreme outcomes -> outcomes closer to the mean
•Positive feedback vs. Negative feedback
What is Cognitive economy?
A balance between simplification and differentiation (saving resources)
What is Generalization in concept organisation?
deriving a concept from specific experiences
What is Graded organization concept organisation?
according to levels
What are Fuzzy boundaries?
More or less part of a category? Multiple categories?
What is the Classic View of Concepts?
Comparison between list of defining features & features encountered
◦ Defining features are necessary and sufficient for category membership
◦ Necessary = required to justify inclusion
◦ Sufficient = enough to justify inclusion
◦ Characteristics features are common but not essential for category membership
Issues with Classic View of Concepts?
Problems:
◦ Impossible to create defining features that include/exclude everything appropriately
◦ Typicality effects
◦ Objects can be in several categories
◦ (aka fuzzy boundaries)
What is the Prototype & Exemplar View?
Concepts are defined not by fulfilling a list of features, but by similarity to a collection of
features based on generalization
What is Exemplar theory:
We store every actual example of members of categories encountered in the world
◦ When seeing new item, compute similarity to whole group of exemplars
What is Prototype theory:
We store an “averaged-out” abstract prototype of each category
• More similar items = stored closer to prototype in concept network
What is the Knowledge View?
◦ Relies on instinctive, implicit knowledge, not similarity
◦ “This is a dog because I find it dog-like”
◦ Essentialism: Belief that there is an “essence” of a certain category that defines it
◦ Problem: Essentialist beliefs can lead to stereotyping
What is the Embodied View?
◦ Concepts are processed in brain networks related to the sensorimotor domain associated with them
◦ Activating a concept in cognition activates brain areas related to that perceptual symbol
◦ Concepts are goal-oriented and a function of the current environment
◦ Hauk et al: In MRI, brain region that process movements associated with movement words were active during passive reading
◦ Connection between concept & sensorimotor system
What does Location of brain damage impact?
which category affected
◦ E.g. people, animals, and tools
What are the Human Language aspects?
Shared symbolic system for purposeful communication
◦ Common among group of people
◦ Units make reference to other things
◦ To communicate thoughts
How is the human language system different?
Our language system is different:
◦ Infinite generation of new combinations of
signals(words)
◦ Many signals/topics
◦ Grammar
◦ About times and places that aren’t right now
What is Broca’s Aphasia?
Damage to left inferior frontal gyrus / Broca’s
area
◦ Non-fluent aphasia / Expressive aphasia
◦ Intact speech comprehension, impaired
production and articulation (halting, difficult)
◦ E.g., patient Tan
What is Wernicke’s Aphasia?
◦ Damage to posterior superior temporal lobe /
Wernicke’s area
◦ Fluent aphasia
◦ No speech comprehension, but fine production
> leads to “word salad”
Paraphrasias (verbal, phonemic, and neologism)
Verbal: swapping word for something related
(e.g. brother for sister)
◦ Phonemic: Swapping/adding speech sounds
(e.g. butterfly > flutterby)
◦ Neologism: made up words
What is Conduction aphasia?
◦ Damage to arcuate fasciculus, which connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s
◦ Production & Comprehension intact
◦ Can’t repeat
Explain Lateralization in both hemispheres?
Language functions are mostly located in the left hemisphere
◦ Other language functions in right hemisphere
◦ Prosody, pitch, gesture
◦ Higher-order processing/overall comprehension
What is the Nurturist/behaviourist view on language?
Language is acquired through the same mechanisms as any other skill; trial and error learning
What is the Naturist/innatist view?
Language is an innate faculty, not stimulus dependent, not
determined by reinforcement
◦ We are born with the principles of grammar, and the LAD (language acquisition device)
◦ Universal grammar: innate grammar that can be “customized” to any language children are
exposed to
What is the support for Support for Naturist/innatist view?
Convergence – children exposed to different situations, yet converge on same grammar
◦ Uniformity – same progression of language acquisition
◦ Poverty of the stimulus – Child hears not enough language samples to acquire ALL language
◦ Problem: children DO form rules from experiences, not just innately
What are Phonemes:
smallest units, “sounds” e.g. /d/, /a/
What are Morphemes and words:
smallest meaningful units, e.g. “dada”
What are Syntax:
rules that govern arrangement of morphemes and words
What are Semantics:
meanings of words
What does comprehension require?
= understanding semantics = Requires resolving linguistic ambiguity
What is Lexical Ambiguity?
= within a word
Swinney 1979 – Homophones prime all meanings at first, then context kicks in & discards inappropriate word. (Ex. bat and bat)
Syntactic/parsing = within a sentence. There is two ways to parse a sentence (Syntax first approach,Constraint-based model) :
-Syntax first approach: reading via grammar principles alone, in one direction (garden path sentence)
-Constraint-based model: context, expectation, frequency used to resolve ambiguity
What is Nativism?
Language and thought are independent
◦ Language of thought = mentalese
What is Linguistic Relativity?
: Thoughts are determined by language
◦ …Or maybe just influenced
◦ Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
◦ Colour boundaries differ across languages, sometimes leads to different behavioural results in colour matching tasks
What is Surface dyslexia?
o Reading letter-by-letter, sounding out
o Difficulty at lexical level
o Struggles with irregular words
What is Phonological dyslexia?
o Reading whole word
o Difficulty at letter-by-letter
(phonological) level
o Struggles with nonwords or new words
What is the Old view on bilingualism ?
Bilinguals should be “functionally monolingual” in L1 (Language 1)
What is the updated view on bilingualism?
◦ Both languages are active and competing
◦ E.g. cognate effects (facilitation) vs homograph effects (interference)
How does Bilingualism alter the function and structure of the mind?
E.g. cognitive control advantage cognitive reserve advantage, L1 impacted by L2
Are all bilinguals are the same?
E.g. individual differences > context of language use, frequency of language use, AOA, etc.
So no
What is Risk premium:
Difference between expected gains of a risky option and a certain option
Explain Risk attitudes using risk premium: (Risk averse, risk neutral, risk seeking)
- Risk averse: positive risk premium (most people)
- Risk neutral: zero risk premium
- Risk seeking: negative risk premium
What can be framed as gains or losses
- Framing effect changes people’s choices
- Risk averse for gains
- Risk seeking for losses
What is the endowment effect?
The tendency to ascribe higher value to objects people own or possess compared to identical objects they do not own.
What is Prospect Theory?
Theory of how humans make decisions
Utility (Explain the subjective value and losses and gains)
Subjective value assigned to object > depends on context, biases
-Asymmetrical for losses vs gains: losses “hurt more”
What is the Framing effect
our choices are influenced by the way they are framed through different wordings, settings, and situations
Are Probabilities assessed objectively?
Not assessed rationally
Ex. Availability heuristic: Overestimate rare events, underestimate mundane ones
What is Dual-Process Theory (System 1 and 2)
◦ Theory that we have 2 systems for making decisions
◦ System 1: fast, effortless, heuristics, limbic system
◦ System 2: slow, effortful, logical, frontal cortex
◦ Changes in affect can change which system is in use
-Related to prediction errors
