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MCAT Miscellaneous > Review 11 > Flashcards

Review 11 Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A
  1. Has four lobes named for the bones at the location: Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.

Folds = gyrus (gyri), small grooves = sulcus (sulci), and large grooves = fissures.

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2
Q

Senses Control

A
  1. Visual and somatosensory from one side are controlled by the other side.
  2. Other senses are controlled by both sides.
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3
Q

Types of Cerebral Cortex

A
  1. Primary cerebral cortex for basic motor or sensory function.
  2. Association cerebral cortex which associates with other areas to perform higher functions.
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4
Q

Attention and Cerebral cortex plus Language

A

Attention for most people is the right side controlling all of the body’s attention to itself and the environment. Some people have their left hemisphere doing the control of attention of the right side alone.

Most people have language controlled by the left side but some others have both sides doing it.

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5
Q

Neurotransmitters in CNS and Peripheral NS

A
  1. Neurotransmitters are molecules that are released and communicate between neurons and muscles.
  2. CNS: Glutamate (+), GABA and Glycine, Serotonin, Dopamine, Acetylcholine, Norepinephrine, Histamine.
  3. Peripheral Nervous System - Acetylcholine (muscle and ANS) and norepinephrine.
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6
Q

Glutamate

A
  1. Stimulated to the cerebral cortex by reticular activating system
  2. Required for consciousness.
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7
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Basalis and Septal

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8
Q

Histamine

A

Hypothalamus

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9
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Locus Coeruleus in the Pons Varolii

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10
Q

Serotonin

A

Raphe nuclei (made up of midbrain, pons, and medulla)

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11
Q

Dopamine

A

Cerebral Cortex:
1. VTA - Ventral Tegmental Area

Other places:

  1. Striatum of basal ganglia by substantia nigra (midbrain)
  2. Pituitary gland by hypothalamus
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12
Q

3 Types of Lesions

A
  1. Radio frequency lesions - Can destroy parts or routes unintended.
  2. Neurochemical studies
  3. Tissue removal- surgical kinife, knife cuts, and surgical aspirations.1
  4. Cortical cooling (cryoloop and it is temporary) and reversible

NOTE- neurochemical lesion and others except cortical cooling are irreversible but muscimol is the reversible neurochemical lesion.

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13
Q

Neurochemical Lesions

A
  1. Excitotoxic lesions

2. Oxidopamine (dopamine, norepinephrine, and adrenaline) and is the dopamine with additional OH

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14
Q

Ways to study the brain

A
  1. Brain structure - MRI and CAT(CT) scans
  2. Brain function - EEG, MEG
  3. Combination of both - fMRI and PET scan
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15
Q

MRI

A

Radio waves that simultaneously align and dealign atoms and create detailed pictures of images

Cons - Does not show active areas

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16
Q

CAT or CT scans

A

X-rays to show images. Can show swellings and abnormal structures

Cons - Areas active cannot be seen

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17
Q

EEG

A

Electrode signals with gels and signals

Cons: No individual neurons or picture

Can show - REM sleep, and slow wave sleep

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18
Q

MEG

A

Uses magnetic fields produced by electrical currents in the brain measured by SQUIDS

  1. Better resolution than EEG
  2. Con - Rare because it needs shielding because of emissions
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19
Q

fMRI

A
  1. Allows to see MRI images and active parts
  2. Active parts use oxygen more than others.
  3. Measure ratio of oxygenated/deoxygenated blood to see active and inactive areas of the blood
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20
Q

PET

A
  1. Uses radioactive glucose injection to check areas that use glucose more
  2. Combined with CAT scan or MRI
  3. Con - Invasive injection
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21
Q

Neural Cells Notes

A
  1. Made up of glia and neurons
  2. Neurons and Glia in CNS are made from neural stem cells developing from ectoderm, while those in peripheral NS are made from neural crest cells.
  3. Neuron function to process and transmit information, while glia cells support them.
22
Q

Important Electricity and Electrolyte note

A

Electrolytes are solutions of ions, either positive or negative. The more ions present, the more electricity can be conducted, and the higher the conductivity. Therefore, an increase in conductivity is indicative of an increased concentration of ions.

23
Q

Note about Bond Dissociation Energies

A

Bond dissociation energies are always given as positive values and are effectively defined as the potential energy of the separate atoms minus the potential energy of the bonded atoms. Bonded atoms are always at a lower energy state compared to separate atoms, which are defined as 0 energy.

24
Q

Atomic Transitions Energy

A

It is necessary to recall that the gap between adjacent energy levels decreases with increasing distance from the nucleus. Thus the n = 5 to n = 4 is indeed a lower energy transition than the n = 4 to n = 3 transition.

25
Q

Why is the volume of a real gas under any set of conditions is smaller than the volume of an ideal gas under the same conditions?

A

The volume of real gas particles is significant and reduces the free space in the vessel.

26
Q

Sphingomyelin Note

A

Strongly acidic hydrolysis conditions result in cleavage of both the amide and the phosphate ester.

27
Q

Difference between Mixed, Uncompetitive, Competitve, and Non-competitive

A

Check this or Ask AL

28
Q

Functions and location

A

Soma, neurites, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of ranvier, axon terminals, axon hillock, trigger zone

29
Q

Neuron development in CNS vs. Periphery

A

CNS:

  1. Starts with neural stem cells which can form other nerve cells or neuron.
  2. Forms neuroblast, migrates to target locationwhere soma develops.
  3. Extend their axon when at target. Tip forms a growth cone that serves as guidance to target cell.

Periphery - same process. It is just formed from neural crest cell instead.

30
Q

Structural Categories of Neurons

A
  1. Unipolar
  2. Bipolar
  3. Multipolar
  4. Pseudounipolar
31
Q

Pseudounipolar Neuron

A
  1. Two axons - One is axon from periphery and the other is axon into CNS.
  2. Periphery axon has dendrites and trigger zone located there.
  3. Axon terminal is at the CNS axon
32
Q

Information transmission pattern of neurons

A

Information and input converted to the size and duration of graded potentials is then converted to the temporal pattern of firing and then converted to the amount and temporal pattern of neurotransmitter

33
Q

Afferent Neuron

A
  1. Also called sensory neuron

2. Bring information involving stimuli either internal or external

34
Q

Efferent Neuron

A
  1. Types - Motor (somatomotor neuron) and Autonomic (Visceral)
  2. Motor - Control skeletal muscle
  3. Autonomic - Control smooth, cardiac, and gland cells
35
Q

Interneurons

A
  1. Neurons between neurons
  2. Do complex stuff
  3. Communicate with other neurons in CNS for higher functions
  4. Located in CNS
36
Q

Action Potential vs. Graded potential

A

Action Potential:
1. Same size and duration

  1. Faster along axon with large diameter and myelin sheath

Graded Potential:
1. Size and duration depend on size and duration of inputs.

37
Q

Action Potential

A
  1. The way it changes (potential) down the axon.
  2. It is large in size and brief in duration
  3. Conducted entire length of the axon, no matter length so it can travel long distances.
  4. Combined effect of graded potential that will be past the threshold potential.
38
Q

Summation

A
  1. Addition of inhibitory and excitatory input at any point occurs at the trigger zone (axon initial segment)
  2. Way neurons process information from their inputs.
  3. If info at trigger zone crosses threshold potential, information will then be fired down the axon.
  4. Addtition of the graded potentials
39
Q

INtro to Neuron INformation function

A
  1. Information comes in through dendrite
  2. Positive or negative information
  3. Transfer to axon with membrane potentials is called graded potentials.
  4. Graded potentials are changes to membrane potential away from resting potentials.
  5. They are small in size, brief in duration, and travel short distance.
40
Q

Astrocytes

A
  1. Glial cells of the central nervous system, characterized by having highly branched processes with endfeet for several functions.
  2. Functions;
    a. Scaffold - structural support
    b. Glial scar - gliosis, astrocytosis, astrogliosis, reactive astrocytosis.
    c. Homeostasis - ions concentration, the release of lactate
    d. Blood-brain barrier - plasters on blood vessels
    e. Clear out synapses (reset) using their endfeet
    f. Influence neurons and other glia.
41
Q

Microglia

A
  1. Two presentations:
    a. Resting microglia
    b. Active microglia
  2. Functions:
    a. Inflammation detection
    b. Phagocytosis
    c. Antigen presentation
  3. Come from circulating monocytes from the bone marrow and enter the CNS where they form mesoderm as opposed to ectoderm-like other neural stem cells.
42
Q

Resting Glia

A
  1. Small soma with long, highly branched processes heading out in every direction.
  2. Keep an eye on interstitial fluid
43
Q

Active microglia

A
  1. Shaped like an amoeba. When resting glia see trouble (inflammation, injury, infection, they retract processes and form amoeba)
  2. Act like macrophages by monitoring for foreigners.
  3. They can release chemicals like cytotoxins (ROS) to attack bacteria and form debris which they inject or phagocytose and form antigen presentation for others to recognize.

Functions: Inflammation, phagocytosis, and antigen presentation.

44
Q

Ependymal cells

A
  1. Inter-connected spaces from the brain to spinal cord containing cerebrospinal fluid are lined with ependyma containing ependymal cells and derived from neural stem cells.
  2. Functions:
    a. Forms barrier between CSF and interstitial fluid but it leakier than the blood-brain barrier.
    b. Participate in cerebrospinal fluid secretion
45
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A
  1. Myelin sheath is made up of lipids and oligodendrocytes help in formation and maintenance of myelin sheath.
  2. Several oligodendrocytes can form myelin on the same neuron.
  3. Influence other neurons and glia through the exchange of substances.
  4. Some oligodendrocytes do not form myelin sheath but their functions are unknown.
46
Q

Schwann cells

A
  1. Glia of the PNS.
  2. Derived from neural crest cells

Shapes:
1. Fairly shapeless with little troughs on the surface where neurons with small diameter axon sit on the trough. They are non-myelinating Schwann cells.

  1. Peripheral neurons with large axon are usually myelinated and Schwann cells produce this myelinated sheath
  2. Influence neurons through the exchange of a variety of substance.
47
Q

Schwann cells vs. Oligodendrocytes

A

Schwann cells myelinate just one neuron and oligodendrocytes can myelinate more than one neuron.

Think of their structure.

48
Q

Depolarization vs. Hyperpolarization

A

Depolarization:

  1. Moves upward from -60 mv closer to zero
  2. Excitatory potential
  3. Take it to less charge separation. Note polarization is charge separation.

Hyperpolarization:

  1. Moves away downward from zero lower than -60 mv.
  2. Increases charge separation
  3. Usually inhibitory potential.
49
Q

Temporal and Spatial Summation

A

Temporal Summation - If two depolarization occurs at the same time, their effect will be twice or additive (This is related to graded potential).

Spatial Summation - If two potential happen far enough away from each other, there may be no effect on each other.

These mean for hyperpolarization and depolarizarion.

50
Q

Note about Action Potential occurrence

A

The closer the potential (graded) is to the trigger zone, the more likely it is to lead to an action potential occurring.

IF both excitatory and inhibitory potential occur at the same time, they could cancel each other or the greater one could go first I think.

MCAT Miscellaneous (17 decks)

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