Respiratory Physiology Flashcards by Cody Nelson

What are the Major constituents of the earth’s atmosphere?

N2 - 78

02 - 20

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T or F: 02 is a potent poison that breaks down Carbon skeletons and is used for cellular respiration.

True

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T or F: N2 has an important role in respiration. It is a dilutant gas.

False ; n2 doesn’t have a role in respiration

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High altitude _______(reduces/increases) the inspired pressure of oxygen - not the % of oxygen in the atmosphere!!!!!

reduces

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As altitude increases barometric pressure _______ (increases/decreases)

decreases

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In contrast with air, water can contain varying concentrations of dissolved 02, solubility ____ (rises/falls) as ______ increases.

falls; temperature

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What is the gas exchanger for mammals? ______ What about for fish?______

alveolus; secondary lamella

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What kind of ventilation is present for mammals? ______ What about for fish?______

tidal; unidirectional, continuous

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What kind of 02 content and pressure is present for mammals? ______ What about for fish?______

200ml/L
~ 150 mm Hg

.04-9 ml/L (moves alot of water)
1-200 mmHg

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What % of 02 is utilized for mammals? ______ What about for fish?______

25%

80% (more efficient)

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What is the diffusion rate of C02 and O2 for mammals? ______ What about for fish?______

O2 - 500,000 x higher
C02

02 - low
C02 - 23x co2

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What is the 02 density for fish?

1000x air density

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What is the viscosity of 02 for fish?

100x air

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What is the expired c02 content and pressure present for mammals? ______ What about for fish?______

110 ml/L
40-45 mmHg

0-13 ml/L (co2 dissolves)
0-10 mmHg (can get rid of c02 more easily)

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What is the 02 consumption (rest) for mammals? ______ What about for fish?______

200ml/kg/hr (human) higher metabolic rate

50-100 ml/kg/hr (carp)

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longer fluid = _____(more or less) 02 movement

less

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diffusion is _____ (faster/slower) in h20

slower

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partial pressure difference is defined as : ______

diffusion

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T or f: gas can diffuse through solids

true; just slowly

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Define: a random walk from a region of high
concentration (partial pressure)
to a region of lower partial pressure – gas molecule in gas mixture.

diffusion

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______ IS THE MAIN MECHANISM FOR THE DELIVERY OF OXYGEN TO CELLS.

diffusion

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“DRUNKARD’S WALK” is:

MOLECULES MOVE IN THE DIRECTION

OF PRESSURE GRADIENT BUT CHANGE DIRECTION RANDOMLY AS THEY HIT OTHER MOLECULES.

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EVOLUTION HAS MINIMIZED THE LENGTH OF THE FLUID PATHWAY TO _____ (inhibit/aid ) GAS TRANSPORT

aid

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MOST PROBABLE DISTANCE FROM START IS PREDICTED:

D=L x sqrt( N )(D=DISTANCE,L=STEP LENGTH,N=_______)

number of steps

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• WITH A PATH OF ___ STEPS, THE MOST PROBABLE LOCATION OF A MOLECULE IS 10 STEPS FROM ORIGIN

100

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AS ORGANISMS GET LARGER THEIR SURFACE AREA (SA) GETS PROPORTIONATELY _______ (larger/smaller) HENCE THE NEED FOR SPECIAL RESPIRATORY ORGANS WITH LARGE SA - gills and lungs

smaller

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S/A : Volume ratio = ___ : m3

meters squared ; m2

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Aerobic or Anaerobic respiration?

C6H12O6 —> 2(CH3COCOOH)+4H 2(CH3CHOHCOOH) + 4ATP

anaerobic

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Aerobic or Anaerobic respiration?

C6H12O6+6O2=6CO2+6H20+34ATP

aerobic

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Respiratory Gases are used in which type of respiration? aerobic or anaerobic ?

aerobic

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Aerobic produces how much ATP from a single glucose? Anaerobic?

34ATP; 4 ATP

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Vertebrate respiration: Refers to the exchange of O2 and CO2 with the primary gas exchange medium - _____ or air, and transport in a secondary medium which is _____.

water; blood

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Usually two convective pumps - ______ cavity or _____ wall and heart

buccal cavity; chest wall;

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Vertebrate respiration: Two diffusion barriers: ____ or ____ gas exchange membrane and ________ fluid at tissue capillaries

gill; lung; interstitial

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The mechanism of the respiratory pump depends on both the ________ of the vertebrate (fish, amphibian, reptile, bird, mammal) and the primary gas exchange _______ (air or water, or both).

The _________ system design is also determined by these factors

phylogeny; medium; circulatory

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Cardio-respiratory system is a useful concept – a system that gets oxygen from the ___________ and delivers it to _______

environment; tissues

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The percentage composition of the atmosphere ______ (does/does not) change with altitude, but barometric pressure _____ (does not/ does). This influences the pressures (partial pressures) of gases in the mixture.

does not; does

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what is the highest component gas in the atmosphere?

nitrogen gas N2

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big animals can’t rely on _______ and need ventilated gills or lungs. why?

diffusion; because of their growing surface area to volume ratio.

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Diffusion - powered by interactions between gas ________. Gases diffuse ____ (up/down) pressure (concentration) gradient of gas molecules.

molecules; dwn

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Aerobic respiration – uses ___ (a gas), produces ____ (a gas) and H2O

02; c02

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Low Pressure of 02 = ______ (disease)

hypoxia

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T or F: ventilation = convection

true

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2 main pumps in pathway of the respiratory gases :

buccal cavity/chest wall && heart

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2 main mediums of the pathway of the respiratory gases:

which is primary and which is secondary?

water/air(primary) && blood (secondary)

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Pathway of the respiratory gases:

upper and lower airways

Which process is taking place?

convection/ventilation “stirring up”

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Pathway of the respiratory gases:

Gill or lung (gas exchange area)

Which process is taking place?

diffusion takes place
air/water
buccal cavity/chest wall

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Pathway of the respiratory gases:

systemic vasculature

Which process is taking place?

convection/ventilation “stirring up”

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Pathway of the respiratory gases:

interstitial fluid

Which process is taking place?

diffusion

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in convection in the upper and lower airways:

Whats the medium?
Whats the pump?

water/air

buccal cavity/ chest wall

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in convection in the systemic vasculature:

Whats the medium?
Whats the pump?

blood

heart

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What is more favorable for gas exchange?

water or air?

water

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The Fick equation:

The thicker, the ___ (more/less) diffusion.

less

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The Fick equation:

____ (gas) is almost insoluble in h20 (this is why we need helmoglobin)

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The Fick equation:

C02 is 20x ___(more/less) soluble than 02.

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The Fick equation:

more area = ____ (more/less) gas diffusion

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The Fick equation:

alveoli walls are ____ (thick/thin)

thin

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The Fick equation:

D = Sol / sqrt(MW) –> _____ MW means?

MW means molecular weight

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The Fick equation:

Vgas = A/T * D * (p1 - p2)

p1-p2 —> define:
T –> define:
A –> define:

pressure gradient
thickness
area

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What are the 4 vertebrate Gas exchange organs?

FMBA! (FeMaleBA)

Fish gills
Mammalian lung
Bird lung
Amphibian skin

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Which of the 4 vertebrate gas exchange organs uses secondary lamellae ?
Whats the method?

fish gills

counter current

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Which of the 4 vertebrate gas exchange organs uses parabronchus ?
Whats the method?

bird lung

cross-current

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Which of the 4 vertebrate gas exchange organs uses alveolus?

Whats the method?

mammalian lung

‘Pool’

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Which of the 4 vertebrate gas exchange organs uses skin surface?
Whats the method?

amphibian skin

‘Open’

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Cutaneous gas exchange represents a(n) _____ model or method. In vertebrates, most important in amphibians with thin, well vascularised, moist, naked skin

does it ever equilibriate?
is it efficient?

open
No
no

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T or F: In new born humans, cutaneous gas exchange is 5% higher

true

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in cutaneous gas exchange why does the pressure drop from primary to secondary medium?

the thickness of blood

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Bullfrog metamorphosis - gas exchangers are skin, skin and gills, skin and lungs!! An model for evolution of air- breathing; however f you can use a ____ you will!
Animals increase surface area of diffusion through ____

lung

gills

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Convergent Evolution - Nudibranch mollusc with _____ (internal/external) gills

external

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Axolotl salamander with ______ (internal/external) gills (neotenous)

external

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T or F: external gills are very vulnerable and collapse without the support of h20

True

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Double _______ mechanism in bony and cartilaginous fish

pumping

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(1)Mouth opens and the jaw is lowered to draw water into the ______ cavity. The __________ then pulls away from the body, expanding the _______ cavity.

buccal cavity; operculum cavity; operculum cavity

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(2) mouth closes and the lower jaw raises, which squeezes water toward the _______ cavity. Water is forced ___ (in/out) through open operculum.

operculum ______ and the cycle begins again…

opercular cavity; out

closes

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When a fish’s mouth opens. the water flows in to the Buccal cavity that has a _______ (+/-) pressure and also into the opercular cavity that has a double ______ (+/-) pressure. Operculum is ____. (open/closed)

negative; negative; closed

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When the fish’s mouth closes, the buccal cavity has a double ______ (+/-) pressure and the opercular cavity has a ______ (+/-) pressure. Operculum is ____. (open/closed)

positive; positive; open.

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Can Fish change the direction of the water flow?

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Ram ventilation: Pelagic fish like some sharks and mackerel (and remora). Mackerel can’t fully oxygenate their blood if prevented from ________.

swimming

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Note that _____ and _______ flap act as passive flap valves, one open, one closed

mouth; opercular

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Floor of the mouth acts as a suction pump in phase 1 as it is lowered and as a _____ (positive/negative) pressure pump in phase 2 as it is raised

positive

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The operculum acts as a suction pump in phase 1, situated behind the curtain of secondary ______,and a positive pressure pump in phase 2, expelling water from the operculum

lamellae

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T or F: most inspired water passes through the gill curtain for gas exchange

false ; all water

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T or F: Flow of water is unidirectional, which is energy efficient (in fish gills)

True

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P1-P2 is _______(constantly changing/constant) along the length of the secondary lamella

constant

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PO2 of arterial blood is _____(lesser/greater) than PO2 of expired water

greater;

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Fick equation - basic physics of gas ______. Diffusion of oxygen is driven by the pressure (“concentration”) ______.

exchange; gradient

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What is an “open” model of vertebrate gas exchange?

through the skin (cutaneous gas exchange) animals can increase surface area by external gills. Invertebrates, most important in tadpoles.

In cutaneous gas exchange, animals can increase surface area by ______ _____.

external gills

What is the most efficient gas exchange organ and what type of model is it?

PaO2 (oxygen concentration in arterial blood) is ______ (lesser/ greater) than PEO2. (oxygen concentration in expired water).

fish gills
counter-current

greater

Amphibian metamorphosis represents a transition from ____, to external gill, to internal gill, to _____ as gas exchange organ.

skin; lung

T or F: barheaded Geese can fly over the top of Mt. Everest!

True

T or F: mammals and birds evolved from reptiles

true

Reptilian lungs exhibit a wide range of complexity, from simple “_______” lungs to relatively complex lungs that are partitioned into many small gas exchange units

unicameral;

Complex lungs: many small gas exchange units make a _____ (large/small) SA for gas exchange

large

Simple lungs , single gas space “unicameral”, ______ (small/large) SA for gas exchange

small

In airbreathers, like reptiles, increased metabolic rate (active lifestyle) is associated with an ______ (decrease/increase) in surface area of lung for gas exchange

increase

Parabronchi refers to birds with ___ (uni/bi)-directional ventilation.
more SA for active metabolism

unidirectional

Alveoli refers to mammals, with ___ ventilation

more SA for active metabolism

tidal

In birds: the air sacks are connected to hollow ____.

bones

in an ostrich, the lungs are _____.(basal/dorsal)

dorsal

If an air sac has high c02 levels and low 02, it must get air that has already moved through the ____. This is the _____ sac.

lungs; anterior

If an air sac has low C02 levels and 21% 02, the air must have reached the sac before passing through the ____. This is the _____ sacs.

lungs; posterior

Air must move directly to the ________ sacs, then through the lungs, and then to the _______ sacs.

posterior sacs, anterior sacs.

Gas flow through the mesobronchus is ____, but flow along the parabronchi is _________ on both inspiration and expiration!!!!!!

tidal ; unidirectional

Mesobronchus takes air to the _____ sacs.

This is ____ gas flow.

posterior; tidal

Parabronchus takes air to the lungs and the _____ sacs. This is ______ flow.

anterior; unidirectional

First Inhalation: ‘a’ sac _______ ;’p’ sac _______.(expands/contracts)

expands ; expands

First Exhalation: ‘a’ sac _______ ;’p’ sac _______.(expands/contracts)

contracts ; contracts

How many breathes does it take to pass a full cycle of 02 through both sacs?

2 breaths

T or F: birds use valves to maintain pressure within anterior and posterior sacs.

False; no valves used; Fluidonic valving.

“Fluidonic” valving - no physical valves . Depends on ______ of 90º exits.

diameter

Section of a _______– gas flow is unidirectional

parabronchus

If Blood flow is ________ , its at 90 degrees to air flow

cross current

Gas flow through parabronchi is _________, not ___, as in amphibian, reptile and mammal lung

unidirectional; tidal

Whats the advantage of the cross current system?

no unventilated “dead space” or residual volume

Result of this cross – current arrangement – the PO2 of arterial blood is _____ (higher/lower) than the PO2 in exhaled gas!!!

higher

What is the formula for Boyle’s Law?

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2

Boyle’s law. An increase of volume will _____ pressure.

decrease

Boyle’s law. A decrease of volume will ______ pressure.

increase

The intercostal muscles ______ (contract/relax) during inhalation to increase chest volume.

contract

The diaphragm ____ (raises/lowers) during inhalation to increase chest volume.

lowers

Air flows in during inhalation because of _____ law.

Boyles

Inhalation vs Exhalation:

Which requires muscle work?

Inhalation

Vertebrate lungs have become progressively subdivided to increase the ____ for gas exchange.

Surface area

Birds -Tidal gas flow in ________ is converted to unidirectional flow in_________.

mesobronchus; parabronchi

Blood flow at 90 degrees to gas flow is an efficient ___________ system - pressure (concentration) of oxygen in arterial blood is ______ (higher/lower) than that in expired gas

cross-current; higher

In mammals the ______ are ventilated tidally

alveoli

T of F: in expiration alveoli full deflate and eventually fully inflate on inspiration.

false; partially deflate on exhalation.

Inspired air containing 21% O2 at 150 mm Hg is diluted by about 3 litres of ______ alveolar gas with ____ (more/less) O2.

residual; less

Normal alveolar pressures are determined by _____ blood and inspired gas being brought to alveolar units in a __:__ ratio

resulting typically in PAO2 = ___ mm Hg; PACO2 = ___ mm Hg.

venous, 1:1

100; 40

In the mammalian lung the pressure of oxygen in arterial blood can never _____ (equal/exceed) the pressure in expired gas.

exceed

This “pool” system is _____ (less/more) effective at exchanging gases than either countercurrent or crosscurrent systems

less

In mammals, inspiration is by an aspiration or _____ mechanism

thoracic volume ______ (increase/decrease) and pressure at alveoli falls below atmospheric

air flows in (Boyle’s law). Main inspiratory muscle is the _______.

suction
increases
diaphragm

Tidal volume = ____ ml

500ml

Atomic Dead space = ____ ml

150 ml

Alveolar gas = _____ ml

Pulmonary capillary blood = __ ml

70ml

Total Ventilation = _____ ml/min

7500 ml/min

Frequency (at rest) = ___ /min

15 / min

Alveolar ventilation = ____ml/min

5250ml/min

Pulmonary blood flow = ___ ml/min

5000 ml/min

Most oxygen is transported reversibly combined with _______

hemoglobin (Hb)

Most carbon dioxide is transported as ______ ion in the plasma

bicarbonate ion

In Pulmonary artery(mixed venous blood): partial pressure of :
P-O2 = __ mmHg
P-CO2 = __ mmHg

40mmHg

46 mmHg

In alveolus: partial pressure of :
P-O2 = __ mmHg
P-CO2 = __ mmHg

100 mmHg

40 mmHg

In Pulmonary vein (arterial blood) : partial pressure of :
P-O2 = __ mmHg
P-CO2 = __ mmHg

100 mmHg

40 mmHg

Pulmonary vein consists of what type of blood? (arterial or mixed venous blood)

arterial blood

Pulmonary artery consists of what type of blood? (arterial or mixed venous blood)

mixed venous blood

Atmospheric air at airway opening : partial pressure of :
P-O2 = __ mmHg
P-CO2 = __ mmHg

150mmHg

0 mmHg

Oxygen is very ______(insoluble/soluble) in plasma water.

insoluble

you need a carrier protein, (_____), that can transport lots of O2 at arterial PO2, and release it to the tissues at _____ PO2’s

hemoglobin Hb; venous

1 g of Hb combines with ___ ml O2

1.39 ml O2

Typical human blod contains ____ g Hb/100ml

15g

Therefore at arterial PO2, the blood can transport : _____ ml O2/100ml

21.15ml 02/100ml

A hemoglobin protein has ___ subunits

four

Each subunit of hemoglobin contains an ___ ___ core to which an 02 molecule ____.

Fe++ ion; binds

Is hemoglobin oxidized during binding?

T or F: arteriole blood is an important O2 store.

False; venus blood.

Typically, PO2 in tissue capillaries will ____ (increase/decrease) during strenuous exercise.

decrease (20mmHg)

@ p50 –> ___ of every 4 Fe++ ions have bound 02.

2 or 50%

Typical PO2 in tissue capillaries ____(increase/ decrease) at rest.

increase ~40mmHg

T or F: @ PO2 of 100 mmHg nearly all Fe++ are bound to O2

True. nearly

Low oxygen hemoglobin is represented by the letter __

high oxygen hemoglobin is represented by the letter __

High Oxygen vs Low oxygen Hemoglobin:

Which is rotated 15º?

high oxygen

Hemoglobin :

The Fe++ are located in what type of pocket?

Hydrophobic pocket;

hemoglobin :

The Fe++ are located on what type of ring?

Porphyrin ring

Salt bridge bonds are located on hemoglobin subunits between what 2 elements?

N+ and O-

Salt bridge bonds are broken on Hemoglobin sub units due to what?

binding Oxygen

On Myoglobin, what amino acid resides in hydrophobic pockets?

Tyrosine

T or F: H+ strengthen salt bridge bonds.

True

As you work out, your lactic acid builds up and increases H+ concentration. As a result Will the P50 shift left or right? Will salt bridge bonds be strengthened or broken? What will happen to the C02 concentration? This will overall increase or reduce Hemoglobin’s affinity?

shift right
strengthened.
CO2 will increase
reduce affinity

Anemia _____ (increases/reduces) the blood oxygen concentration by reducing carrying capacity .

reduces

CO poisoning is a form of functional ____.

anemia

Anemia and CO poisoning both ______ (increase/decrease) the affinity of O2 in hemoglobin and reduces the amount of available oxygen.

increase ;

Carbondioxide transport by the blood:

CO2 is dissolved in ____ Water - about __ %

plasma; 5%

CARBAMINO COMPOUNDS WITH Hb – ABOUT __%

AS BICARBONATE IN PLASMA – ABOUT___%

90%

Most bicarbonate is transported in plasma after being rapidly formed in RBC’s with the aid of_________ enzyme

carbonic anhydrase

V-a difference concentrations:
cabamino = ___%
HCO3- = _____ %
C02 = _____ %

21%
69%
10%

CO2 Combines with H20 to form –> _____ + H+ with the help of what enzyme?
Where does this proces take place?

HCO3-
carbonate anhydrase
RBC

_____ is a carrier protein in vertebrate red blood

cells (rbc) that can combine reversibly with O2 depending on the ____.

hemoglobin ; P02

As O2 loads, Hb molecules change from a ____ (tense/relaxed) to a ______ (tense/relaxed) state as bonds between four globin subunits break down
What are these bonds called?

tense ; relaxed

salt bridge bonds N – 0

Active sites are ___ ions in planar rings contained in a ______ pocket in globin molecules. Therefore one Hb molecule can load ___ molecules of O2

Fe++; Hydrophobic ; four

____ g of Hb combines with 1 ml O2. Usually about ____ g Hb/100 ml human blood giving ___ ml O2/100ml blood

39g; 15g; 20.85ml O2/100ml

Dissociation curve is ____ (S-shaped) with a P50 of __ mm Hg

sigmoid; 27 mmHg

Reduced affinity = ____ shift at P50. Produced by CO2 and H+ which strengthen bonds and promote a tense state - Therefore, O2 unloads at tissues, where CO2 is high

right shift;

CO2 is largely transported as _____ in plasma although most is produced in ___ with the aid of _______ enzyme

HCO3- ; RBC’S; carbonic anhydrase

What are the 3 main factors that increase the respiratory rate?

Conscious effort
Large decrease in blood levels of O2
an increase in blood levels of CO2 or H+ (exercise)

Factors that inhibit respiratory rate:

stretching of the lungs during inhalation
Conscious effort (Holding breath)
sleep

What is a clinical case that illustrates respiratory control by metabolic and behavioural systems?

1.  "locked in" syndrome
"the diving bell and the butterfly" 
2. Ondine's curse
have to consciously think about breathing
dont cheat on german water nymphs

Locked in syndrom can occur from ______ stroke (or _____).
______ (able/unable) to move voluntarily (eg. eyes)
regular breathing pattern driven by ‘_______ system’

brainstem; pons;
unable
metabolic

Ondine’s curse: patient with tumour at back of ______ .
unable to sleep because he stopped breathing if he does so.
_______ (regular/irregular) breathing when alert and its driven by ‘ ________ system ‘

medulla
irregular
behavioural

Metabolic (chemoreceptor) control of breathing:

Central Controller : includes the ____, medulla, and other parts of the brain.
Receives input from ______.
Gives output to the ______.

Pons
sensors
effectors

Metabolic (chemoreceptor) control of breathing:

Sensors : includes __________, lung, and other receptors.
Receives input from ______.
Gives output to the ______.

chemorecepotors
surroundings and effectors
central controller

Metabolic (chemoreceptor) control of breathing:

Effectors : includes the _______ muscles.
Receives input from ______.
Gives output to the ______.

respiratory msucles;
central controller
sensors

Perifpheral chemoreceptors include : the ______ and _____ bodies.

carotid; aortic

Carotid body chemorecepotrs have a circular type I cell. and a type II cell (_____ cell). Connected to the type __ cell is a single ____ afferent.

glial
type I
CSN - carotid sinus nerve

The sensors in the cartotid body are the ______ cells.

type I

carotid sinus nerve connects to which cell? type I or type II?

type I

As arterial O2 ____ (rises/falls), there is a increased frequency of nerve firing.

falls

Ventilatory responses to oxygen:

Relationship approximates a ______ (triangular/rectangular) hyperbola.

Responses ______ (constant/ vary) between individuals.

Relatively _____ (weak/strong) responses to 02 compared to CO2 response.

Modulated by P___2 (O2/ CO2)

rectangular
highly variable
weak
PCO2

____ are the only significant source of hypoxic ventilatory drive.

carotid bodies

Central chemoreceptors are located in the _____ ______ in cerebral spinal fluid.

medulla oblongata

Ventilatory responses to Carbon dioxide:

Ventilatory response to CO2 is close to a _______(parabolic/ straight line) relationship.

The slope is very _______ (constant/variable) between individuals

Dog leg (hockey stick) effect : present in _____ (sleeping/awake) humans. Anaesthetized animals will stop breathing if ____ falls below a threshold.

Measurements ____ (easy/difficult) to attain because ventilation varies over a wide range and you have to hold P___ (O2/CO2) constant.

Modulation by P___ (O2/CO2)

straight line
variable
Awake; C02
difficult; O2
O2

___% of drive to breathe is from chemoreceptors.

80% or most

Central chemoreceptor cells respond to ________ (increased/decreased) CO2 in arterial blood to increase breathing.

increased

There are no protein _____ in the Cerebral spinal fluid

buffers

Breathing, uniquely, is under both ______ and _______ control

metabolic and behavioral

Cells in the _____ that generate respiratory “drive” receive input from receptors in the lungs, brain and _____ and also the cortex.

medulla; arteries

Peripheral (carotid and _____) chemoreceptors monitor O2 (and secondarily CO2) in arterial blood going to the ____.

aortic; brain

Peripheral chemoreceptors evolved from ____ _____ receptors in ancestoral fish. Carotid body provides ____ (most/all/some) of the ventilatory sensitivity to hypoxia and about ___% of the CO2 sensitivity in mammals

gill arch receptors; all ; 15%

Sensitivity to ______ is valuable at high altitude where PO2 is reduced

hypoxia

Central chemoreceptors in the medulla are only sensitive to ______and provide about 85% of the CO2 drive.

Fish have central chemoreceptors sensitive to CO2, but there is a small signal for them to detect as CO2 is lost at the _____ because it highly _____ (soluble/insoluble) in water

CO2;

gills; soluble

CO2 normally provides the most powerful _________ (type of) drive to breath in mammals - small increases above the normal arterial PCO2 (about 40 mmHg) cause _____ increases in ventilation to drive off excess CO2

metabolic; large

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Respiratory Physiology Flashcards

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