RESEARCH METHODS NEW Flashcards
Aim
Describes he purpose of the investigation
IV
what te researcher changes or manipulates
DV
What they record or measure
Extraneous variables
Variables that might interfere with the IV or DV
Should be controlled or removed.
Demand characteristics
Cues that help the participants guess the hypothesis.
Investigator effects
Characteristics/ behaviour that the researcher shows that may influence the results e.g body language.
Standardisation
Using the same procedures and instructions for every particiant.
Independent groups
2 separate groups of participants experience 2 different conditions. Performance would then be compared.
A03 of independent groups
Negative= individual differences.
Positive= demand characteristics and order effect is not a problem.
Repeated measures
All ppts take part in all conditions then are compared to see if there’s a difference
A03 of repeated measures
Negative= order effects. And demand characteristics.
Positive= ppt variables are controlled and fewer are needed.
Matched pairs.
Ppts are paired together.
Each ppt would be allocated to a different condition.
A03 of matched pairs
Time consuming. Expensive.
Order effects are not a problem
Types of experiments
Lab
Field
Quasi
Natural
Lab experiments
Highly controlled
Maintaining strict control of extraneous variables
A03 go lab experiments.
+ high control of EV. High internal validity.
+ replication is more possible.
- ppts are aware they are being studied. Demand characteristics.
- doesn’t represent real-life
Field experiments
IV is manipulated in a natural, more everyday setting
A03 of field experiments
+ high external validity
+ natural environment
- loss of control of extraneous variables.
- technical issues as participants dont know they are being studied.
Natural experiments
In a natural setting
Random sample
Taken randomly e.g in a hat
A03 of random sample
Free from researcher bias.
Time consuming
Can be difficult to carry out
Systematic sample
Every nth number of the target population is selected.
A03 of systematic sample
Avoids researcher bias
Fairly representative.
Stratified sample
Sub groups
A03 of stratified sample
Avoids researcher bias
Representative- can be generalised
Cannot reflect all ways- complete representation not possible.
Opportunity sample
Anyone willing are selected
A03 of opportunity sampling
Cheap, quick, convenient
Unrepresentative
Besearcher bias
Volunteer sample
Select themselves to be part of
Advert or raise hands
A03 of volunteer sampling
Easy
Not time consuming
Volunteer bias
Ethical isssues
Arise when conflict exists between rights of participants and goals of research
Informed consent
Making participants aware of the aims of the research. And the procedures, and their rights
Also what their data will be used for so can make a judgement if they want to participate or not.
May make behaviour unnatural or data meaningless.
Dealing with informed consent
Consent letter
Under 16’s need a parental signature
Deception
Deliberately misleading or withholding information
Protection from harm
Should be protected from physical, and psychological harm.
Reminded of their right to withdraw
Dealing with deception and protection from harm
Debriefing= made aware of the true aims after the study.
Should be assured hat their behaviour is normal and offer counselling
Privacy and confidentiality
Right to control information about themselves
If privacy is invaded, confidentiality should be protected.
Dealing with privacy and confidentiality
Should be reminded that data is protected.
Brief and debrief
What is a covert observation
P aren’t aware they are being studied
What is an overt observation
P are aware they are being studied
What is a non-participant observation
Observer is separate from P
What is a participant observation
The observer is taking part with participants
What is a controlled observation
Behaviour is observed under conditions organised by the investigator
What is a naturalistic observation
Observation carried out in an everyday setting.
The investigator does not interfere
What is a structured interview
Where questions are decided in advance and are not strayed from
What is an unstructured interview
Where it can have a range of questions.
Allows the participants answers to guide the following questions
What is a questionnaire
Written questions
Often handed out
Newspapers
Posted
A03 pos and neg of structured interviews
Can be easily replicated
Interviewer bias
A03 pos and neg of unstructured interviews
More detailed and can find out more information.
More skills required and takes longer to find an actual answer.
A03 pos and neg of questionnaires
Can be given to a large sample and quickly
Biased sample, some people may guess or put random answers if they are unsure- not replicable of the actual outcome
What is interviewer bias
The effect of an interviewers expectations on a P behaviour
What is social desirability bias
A distortion in the way people answer questions in order to place themselves in a better light
What are closed questions
Have a predetermined selection of answers to choose form.
May not give a true answer if the selection does not present them
What are open questions
Invite respondents to provide their own answers. Provides detail but makes it harder to compare answers.
What shape signifies a normal distribution
A symmetrical bell-shape
What does a skewed distribution look like
One tail is longer than the other
What does a skewed distribution look like
One tail is longer than the other
Test-retest reliability
When the same test or interview is given to the same P on 2 occasions to see if the same results are attained
What is concurrent validity
Where you compare an existing test or questionnaire with one you’re interested in
What is face validity.
The extent to which test items look like what the test claims to measure
What is temporal validity
The ability to generalise the research effect beyond the particular time period of the study.
What is probibility
Numerical measure of the likelihood that certain events will occur
What is a null hypothesis
An assumption that there is no relationship. Between the variables
What is an alternative hypothesis
Testable statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables
When do type 1 errors occur
When a researcher rejects a null hypothesis that is true
When do type ll errors occur
When a researcher accepts a null hypothesis that is not true.
What is systematic sampling
When a system is used to select participants.
Pick every Nth person from all possible participants.
What is stratified sampling
When you identify the subgroups and select participants in proportion to their occurrences.
What is snowball sampling
When researchers find a few P and then ask them to find P themselves and so on
What dies operationalise of variables mean
Making them measurable.
Use operationalisation to ensure that variables are in a form that can easily be measured.
Also makes it easy for someone else to replicate the research.
Important- check if the findings are reliable.
What happens if extraneous variables are not controlled
It will affect the results
What is counterbalancing:
Prevents order effects
Involves ensuring that each condition is equally likely to be used first and second by the P
Explain correlation
Means association
Measure of the extent to which 2 variables are related.
What is a pilot study
It is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation.
Help the researcher spot and usual things or confusion in the info given to P.
What is reliability
Measure of consistency
If same results are achieved when repeated it is said to be reliable.
What is test- retest reliability
Assessing the same person on 2 different occasions which shows the extent to which the test produces the same answers
What is inter- observer reliability
The extent to which there is an agreement between 2 or more observers.
What is meta-analysis
Statistical procedure used to combine findings from multiple independent studies to estimate the average effect size for a particular research question.
How is meta- analysis achieved
Looking through various databases, and then decisions are made about what studies are to be included or excluded.
What is one strength and one limitation of meta-analysis
Strength: increases the conclusions validity as they are based on a wider range.
Limitation: research designs in studies can vary, so they are not truly comparable
What is primary data
First- hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.
What is secondary data
Information that has been collected by someone other than the person who is inducting the research.
What is validity
Means how well a peice of research actually measures what it is supposed to measure.
What is concurrent validity
Te extent to which a psychological meaure relates to an existing measure and obtains close results.
What is face validity
Does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure ‘on the face of it’
What is ecological validity
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings/ real life
What is temporal validity.
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times
What is a type II error
The null hypothesis is accepted when it should be rejected.
What is a type I error
When the null hypothesis is rjected when it should have been accepted.
What is a correlation coefficient
Statistical test which gives the number of the correlation coefficient
Value between +1 and -1.
Perfect correction is +/-1
Tells us about the strength of the relationship.
What are the measures of central tendency
Mean, median, mode
What is the mean
Average
Add up all scores and divide by the number of scores
What is the median
Middle value
Place scores in ascending order and select middle value
If there’s 2= mean of these is calculated.
What is the mode
Most frequent or common value
Used within norminal data
What are the measures of dispersion
Range and standard deviation
What is quantitative data
Numerical data
Strength of quantitative data
Easier to analyse
Can draw graphs and calculate averages
Can see patterns
What is a limitation of quantitative data
It oversimplifies behaviour
Individual meanings are lost
What is qualitative data
Non-numerical data
Words
Diary extract etc
Strength of qualitative data
Represents complexities
In more detail
Can include opinions
What is a limitation of qualitative data
Hard to analyse
More detail included
Time consuming
