Research Methods Key Terms Flashcards
Experimental Method
Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi
Aim
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate. In other words: the purpose of the study
Hypothesis
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be tested. Stated at the beginning of the study
Directional Hypothesis
States the direction of the difference or relationship
Variables
Any “thing” that can vary or change during an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes occur in one thing result In changes to another
Independent Variable (IV)
Some aspects of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher, or changes naturally- so the effect on the DV can be measured
Dependent Variable (DV)
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV
Operationalization
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
Extraneous Variable (EV)
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV, if it is not controlled. EV’s are nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV
Confounding Variable
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have effected the DV, so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. Confounding variables vary systematically with the IV
Demand Characteristics
Any cue from the researcher or the research situation that may be interpreted by the participant as revelling the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation
Investigator Effects
Any effect of the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process
Randomisation
The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions
Standardisation
Using exactly the some formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
Experimental Design
The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions
Independent Groups Design
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one condition
Repeated Measures
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
Matched Pairs Design
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable that may affect the DV. Then one member of each pair is assigned to condition A, and the other to condition B
Random Allocation
An attempt to control participant variables in an independent groups design, which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other
Counterbalancing
An attempt to control the effects of order in a repeated measure design, half the participants experience the conditions in one order, the other half in the opposite order. AKA ABBA
Laboratory Experiment
An experiment that takes place in an controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables
Field Experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects of the DV
Natural Experiment
An experiment where the change on the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on the DV
Quasi-Experiment
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone, the variables simply exist, such as age
Population
A group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn
Sample
A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from the population and is presumed to be representative of that population
Sampling Techniques
The method used to select people from the population
Bias
In the context of sampling, when certain groups may be over or under represented within the sample selected. This limits the extent to which generalisation can be made to the target population
Generalisation
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population
Ethical Issues
These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile results
BPS Code of Ethics
A quasi legal document produced by the British Psychological Society that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. It is built around 4 major principals, respect, competence, responsibility and integrity
Pilot Study
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check procedures ,materials ,measuring scales etc. work and to allow the researcher to make changes if necessary
Naturalistic Observation
Watching and recording behaviour in a setting within which it would normally occur
Controlled Observation
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment
Covert Observation
Participant’s behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
Overt Observation
Participant’s behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
Participant Observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
Non-Participant Observation
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
Behavioural Categories
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable
Event Sampling
A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs
Time Sampling
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame
Self Report Techniques
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own findings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic
Questionnaire
A set of written questions used to assess a persons thoughts and/or experiences
Interview
A live encounter where one person asks a set of questions to assess an interviewees thoughts and/or experiences. The questions may be pre-set or may develop as the interview goes along
Open Question
Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish
Closed Question
Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter
Correlation
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables
Co-Variables
The variables investigated within a correlation. They are not called IV and DV because a correlation investigates the association between the two variables, rather than trying to show cause and effect
Positive Correlation
As one co-variable increases, so does the other
Negative Correlation
As one co-variable increases, the other decreases
Zero Correlation
There is no relationship between the co-variables
Qualitative Data
Data that is expressed in words and is non-numerical
Quantitative Data
Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers
Primary Data
Information that has be obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research study. This data can be gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation
Secondary Data
Information that has already been collected by someone else and pre-dates the current research project. The data might include the work of others or government statistics
Meta-Analysis
“Research about Research”, the process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view
Descriptive Statistics
The use of graphs,tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data
Measures of Central Tendency
The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data
Mean
The average calculated by adding up all the values and dividing by the number of values there are
Median
The central value in a set of data when they are arranged from lowest to highest
Mode
The most frequently occurring value in a set of data
Measures of dispersion
The general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores
Range
A simple calculation of the dispersion in a set of scores which is worked out by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score and adding one as a mathematical correction
Standard Deviation
A measure of dispersion in a set of scores. It tells us how much scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score. All the differences are added up and divided by the number of scores. This is the variance. The standard variation is the square root of this
Scattergraph
A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables in a correlation analysis
Bar Chart
A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars
Normal Distribution
A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell shaped pattern. The mode,median and mean are located at the highest peak
Skewed Distribution
A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end
Positive Skew
A type of distribution in which the long tail on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is located on the left
Negative Skew
A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the left side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right
Statistical Testing
Provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected, they tell us the relationships between the variables are statically significant or have occurred by chance
Sign Test
A statical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items
Peer Review
The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of a high quality
Economy
The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services
Situational Variable
A variable that is related to external circumstances rather than the personalities of those involved
Research Methods
The process by which information or data is collected usually for the purpose of testing a hypothesis and/or a theory
Correlation Coefficient
A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables
Case Studies
An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event
Content Analysis
A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce, for example, in texts, emails, TV, film and other media
Coding
The stage of a content analysis in which the communication to be studied is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories, for example, words ,sentences, phrases etc
Thematic Analysis
An inductive and qualitative approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded
Reliability
Refers to how consistent the findings from an investigation or measuring device are. It is reliable if it produces consistent results every time
Test-Retest Reliability
A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or a psychological test by assessing the same person on two separate occasions. This shows to what extent the test produces the same answers
Inter-Observer Reliability
The extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in the observation of a behaviour
Validity
The extent to which an observed effect is genuine. Does it measure what it was supposed to measure, can it be generalised to beyond the experimental conditions
Face Validity
A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is meant to measure, e.g.: does an anxiety test look like it measures anxiety
Concurrent Validity
The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure
Ecological Validity
The extent to which findings from research can be generalised to other settings or situations
Temporal Validity
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras
Statistical Test
Used in psychology to determine whether a significant difference or correlation exists
Levels of Measurement
Quantitative data can be classified into types or levels of measurement, such as nominal, ordinal or interval
Chi-Squared
A test for an associated between two variables or conditions. Data should be nominal level used an independent design
Mann-Whitney
A test for an significant difference between two sets of scores. Data should be at least ordinal level using an repeated measures design
Wilcoxon
A test for significant difference between two sets of scores. Data should be at least ordinal level using a repeated measures or matched pairs design
Spearman’s Rho
A test for correlation when data is at least ordinal level
Person’s R
A parametric test for correlation when data is at interval level
Related t Test
A parametric test for difference between two sets of scores. Data must be interval with a related design
Unrelated t Test
A parametric test for difference between two sets of scores. Data must be internal with an unrelated design
Probability
A measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 indicates statistical certainty
Significance
A statistical terms that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists. A “significant” result means that the researcher can reject the null hypothesis
Critical Value
When testing a hypothesis, the numerical boundary or cut off point between acceptance and rejection of the null hypothesis
Type 1 Error
The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (a false positive)
Type 2 Error
The failure to reject a false null hypothesis (a false negative)
Abstract
The key details of the research report
Introduction
A look at past research (theories and/or studies) on a similar topic. This section includes the aim and hypothesis
Method
A description of what the researcher did, including design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure, ethics
Results
A description of what the researcher found, including descriptive and inferential statistics
Discussion
A consideration of what the results of a research study tells us in terms of psychological theory
References
A list of sources that are referred to or quoted in the article
Paradigm
A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline
Paradigm Shift
The result of a scientific revolution. A significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline
Objectivity
When all sources of personal bias are minimized so as not to distort or influence the research process
The Empirical Method
Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience
Reliability
The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers
Falsilfiability
The principal that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the probability of being proved false
