Cognition and Development Theories Flashcards
Piaget theory of cognitive development-Schemas
A schema is a mental structure containing all the information we have about one aspect of the world. Children are born with a small number of schemas,including the “me schema” about themselves
Piaget theory of cognitive development-Motivation-Disequilibrium
We are motivated to learn when our existing schemas do not allow us to make sense of something. This causes disequilibrium
Piaget theory of cognitive development-Motivation-Equilibrium
We adapt our schema to the new situation by exploring and learning what we need to know. This creates the preferred metal state of equilibrium
Piaget theory of cognitive development-Learning-Assimilation
We understand a new situation and equilbriate by adding new information to our pre existing schema
Piaget theory of cognitive development-Learning-Accommodation
Occurs in response to dramatically new experiences. The child was to adjust to these by either radically changing their schemas or by forming New ones
Piaget theory of cognitive development-Evaluation
+Research to support the idea of children learning by discovery-Howe Study
+Applications in Education-Learning by discovery in reception classes
-Underplayed role of others in learning-Piaget saw adults as those who set up the situation in which discovery occurs
Piaget Stages of Intellectual Development-Sensorimotor Stage
From 0-2 years of age, babies acquire basic physical co-ordination, object permanence (at around 8 months) and basic language
Piaget Stages of Intellectual Development-Pre-Operational Stage
From 2-7 years of age, the child is mobile and can use language, but they lack reasoning ability
Piaget Stages of Intellectual Development-Pre-Operational Stage-Conservation
Children fail to understand that quantities cannot change, even when the appearance of objects change
Piaget Stages of Intellectual Development-Pre-Operational Stage-Egocentrism
Children fail to see an event from another’s perspective
Piaget Stages of Intellectual Development-Pre-Operational Stage-Class Inclusion
Children fail to recognise subsets of larger groups, eg: Dogs are a subset of the animals group
Piaget Stages of Intellectual Development-Stage of Concrete Operations
From 7-11 years of age, the child can conserve, and perform better on class inclusion and egocentrism tasks. These improved reasoning abilities can only be used on physical objects, and the child struggles to reason about abstract or hypothetical ideas
Piaget Stages of Intellectual Development-Stage of Formal Operations
From 11 years and up children are able to focus on the form of the argument and not the content of the argument. Piaget said that the child can now appreciate abstract ideas
Piaget Stages of Intellectual Development-Evaluation
- Dubious questioning on Conservation- Did the children think that they were meant to think the quantity had changed- McFarrigle and Donaldson study- Dubious conclusions on Class Inclusion-Children can understand Class Inclusion during pre operational stage-Siegler and Svetina study
- Study of children’s ability to decentre-Hughes study -Did Piaget underestimate the abilities of children?
Vygotsky Theory of Cognitive Development-Cultural Differences in Cognitive Abilities
Cognitive abilities are acquired in social interaction, according to this theory. This means that they reflect the abilities of local adults and therefore they may vary between cultures
Vygotsky Theory of Cognitive Development–Zone of Proximal Development
The ZPD is the difference in what a child can learn without help, and what a child can learn with a level of guidance. Having a expert assisting the child allows them to “cross the zone”
Vygotsky Theory of Cognitive Development-Scaffolding
The help given to the child by an expert to guide the child through the ZPD
Vygotsky Theory of Cognitive Development-Scaffolding-Stages-Recruitment
Engaging the child’s interest in the task
Vygotsky Theory of Cognitive Development-Scaffolding-Stages-Reduction of Degrees of Freedom
Focusing the child on the task and where to start with solving it
Vygotsky Theory of Cognitive Development-Scaffolding-Stages-Direction Maintenance
Encouraging the child in order to help them stay motivated and continue to complete the task
Vygotsky Theory of Cognitive Development-Scaffolding-Stages-Marking Critical Features
Highlighting the most important parts of the task
Vygotsky Theory of Cognitive Development-Scaffolding-Stages-Demonstration
Showing the child how to do aspects of the task
Vygotsky Theory of Cognitive Development-Evaluation
+Support for ZPD-Roazzi and Bryant study
+Support for Scaffolding-Conner and Cross study
+Application in Education-Can be used in Peer tutoring and one on one sessions between a teacher and student-Van Keer and Verhaeghe study
-Does not take into account individual differences
Baillargeon Explanation of Infant Abilities-Early Research
This theory was developed in response to Piaget’s theory of object permanence. For this, Baillargeon developed the Violation of Expectation method to investigate infants object permanence
Baillargeon Explanation of Infant Abilities-Theory of Infant Reasoning
Humans are born with a physical reasoning system (PRS)- a innate understanding of the physical world and the ability to learn more details easily. When we are born, we have a basic understanding of object permanence. As we develop, this understanding also develops, becoming more sophisticated as it develops through our experiences
Baillargeon Explanation of Infant Abilities-Evaluation
+Better test of infant understanding that Piaget’s-It eliminates the confounding variable of attention and interest-Has more validity than Piaget’s
-Hard to judge what an infant understands-Cannot directly tell what an infant understands but have to infer it from their behaviour. Infants looking at impossible events for longer does not mean that they understand that the event is impossible
+PRS explain why physical understanding is universal-Its an inmate system-Make behaviour same for everyone-Universal
Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking-Stages of Development-Socially Egocentric
From 3-6 years. The child in this stage cannot reliably distinguish between their own emotions and those of others. The can identify emotional states in other, but do not understand what caused them
Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking-Stages of Development-Social Information Role Taking
From 6-8 years. The child can now tell the difference between their own point of view and that of others, but they can only focus on one of these perspectives
Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking-Stages of Development-Self Reflective Role Taking
From 8-10 years. The child can put themselves in the position of someone else and fully appreciate their perspective. However, they can only take on board one perspective at a time
Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking-Stages of Development-Mutual Role Taking
From 10-12 years. Children can now look at a situation from their own and another point of view at the same time
Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking-Stages of Development-Social and Conventional System Role Taking
From 12 + years. Young people are able to see that sometimes understanding others viewpoints is not enough to allow people to reach an agreement.
Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking-Later Developments-Selman and La Russo’s Aspects-Interpersonal Understanding
If we take different roles, this shows that we can understand social situations
Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking-Later Developments-Selman and La Russo’s Aspects-Interpersonal Negotiation Strategies
We have to develop skills to understand and manage social interaction. These are known as “social skills”
Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking-Later Developments-Selman and La Russo’s Aspects-Awareness of Personal Meaning of Relationships
We need to have the ability to reflect on social behaviour on the context of life history and the full range of relationships
Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking-Evaluation
+Evidence that supports Perspective taking improving with age-Selman kitten study
-Mixed Evidence for the importance of perspective taking-Bujizen and Valkenburg study and Gasser and Keller study
+Applications in understanding atypical development-Can be used to help us understand autism-Marton study
-Cognitive Reductionist-Downplays factors like emotion
Theory of Mind-What is it?
The ability to understand what is going on in the mind of another person
Theory of Mind-Evaluation
- Low validity in false belief tasks-These may test memory as well as ToM
- Hard to distinguish ToM from perspective taking-Most of ToM research can be used to measure perspective taking as well-Lacks validity
- Partial explanation for ASD-A lack of ToM cannot fully be the cause of ASD. There must be other factors
- No clear understanding of how ToM develops
Mirror Neurons-What
Brain cells underlying empathy, understand intention and perspective taking
Mirror Neurons-Intention
Mirror neurons in the motor cortex may allow us to simulate actions of others and so can help us understand their intentions
Mirror Neurons-Perspective Taking
The ability to simulate actions of others may help us to take their perspective
Mirror Neurons-Human Evolution
Ramachandran suggests that mirror neurons have shaped the direction of human evolution by allowing us to live in large complex groups with roles and rules
Mirror Neurons-ASD
It has been suggested that ASD is the results of a poor neuron system
Mirror Neurons-Evaluation
+Evidence for the role of mirror neurons-Haker study and Mouras study
-Difficulty in studying mirror neurons-Current techniques for measuring brain activity does not measure at cellular level, cannot see the neurons in action
+/-Mixed evidence for abnormal mirror neuron function in ASD-Hadjikhani study supports theory, but finding are not consistent
-Questions over the existence and precise role of mirror neurons
