Memory Studies Flashcards
Coding-Baddeley-Method
He gave a different list of words to 4 group to remember; Group 1- Acoustically Similar Group 2- Acoustically Dissimilar Group 3- Semantically Similar Group 4- Semantically Dissimilar
Coding-Baddeley-Results
Participants were shown the original words and were asked to recall them in the correct order. They did this immediately after hearing them. Participants tended to do worse with acoustically similar words
Coding-Baddeley-Evaluation
-Artificial Stimuli-Findings have limited application
Capacity-Jacobs-Method
The researcher gave the participant a set of digits and they had to recall them in the right order
Capacity-Jacobs-Results
The mean digit span across all partcipants was 9.3 items
Capacity-Jacobs-Evaluation
-Limited Validity-results may have been effected by confounding variables
+Results of this study has been confirmed by other research
Capacity-Miller-Method
Miller noted that things come in sevens. He suggested that the capacity of the STM is 7
Capacity-Miller-Results
He noted that people can recall 5 things (due to chunking)
Capacity-Miller-Evaluation
-Miller may have overestimated the capacity of the STM. Future research has suggested that the capacity of the STM is 4. This suggest that the lower bond (5) is more accurate that Miller’s estimate
Duration-Peterson and Peterson-Method
24 undergraduate students took part in 8 trials (tests). During each trial, the student was given a trigram to remember and was also given a 3 digit number. The student was then asked to count backwards from their 3 digit number until told to stop. On each trial, they were told to stop after a different length of time
Duration-Peterson and Peterson-Results
As the amount of time the participants had to count for increased, the % of correct remembrance of their trigram decreased
Duration-Peterson and Peterson-Evaluation
-Artificial Stimuli, lacks external validity
+However, we do remember meaningless numbers in our daily life, so it isn’t that irrelevant
Duration-Bahrick-Method
392 participants from Ohio aged between 17 and 74 were tested. Their high school yearbooks were obtained. Recall was tested in various ways including:
- photo recognition test of 50 photos, some from their yearbook
- free recall test where they recalled all the names of their graduating class
Duration-Bahrick-Results
Participants who were tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in photo recognition. After 48 years, this figure decline to 70%. After 15 years, free recall was about 60% accurate, dropping to 30% after 48 years
Duration-Bahrick-Evaluation
+High External Validity- real life memories were used
-Confounding Variables are not controls- Participants may have looked at their yearbook and rehearsed this for many years
More than one type of STM-Shallace and Warrington-Method
They did a case study of a patient with amnesia known as KF.
More than one type of STM-Shallace and Warrington-Results
They found that KF’s STM for digits was very poor when they were read out loud to him. His recall was much better when he read the digits himself. This could be because amnesia suffers might have another STM store for non-verbal sounds, according to further research
Working Memory Model-Shallace and Warrington-Method
Case study of KF
Working Memory Model-Shallace and Warrington-Results
KF had a poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information presented visually. Suggests that only his Phonological Loop was damaged-supports the idea of separate visual and audio stores
Dual Task Performance-Baddeley-Method
The participants had to do two different tasks.
- Two Visual tasks at the same time
- A Visual and a Verbal task at the same time
Dual Task Performance-Baddeley-Results
The participants found it difficult to do 2 visual tasks at the same time. This is because the tasks both use the same slave system, so there is some competition
Interference-McGeoch and McDonald-Method
Participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they could recall them with 100% accuracy. They then learned a different list. There were 6 groups who had to learn a different type of list 1-Synonyms-same meaning as original 2-Antonyms-opposite meanings as original 3-Words unrelated to original ones 4-Nonsense syllables 5-Three-digit numbers 6-No new list-they rested
Interference-McGeoch and McDonald-Results
When the participants recalled the first list, their performance depended on the nature of the second list. The most similar material produced the worst recall.
Interference-Baddeley and Hitch-Method
They asked rugby players to try to remember and recall the names of the teams they had played, week by week. Because most of the players had missed games, their “last game” may had been 2 or 3 weeks ago
Interference-Baddeley and Hitch-Results
Accurate recall did not depend on how long ago the game was played. More important was the number of games that they played in the meantime. A players recall of a team from 3 weeks ago was better if they played no games since then
Interference-Baddeley and Hitch-Evaluation
+Real Life Application
Interference-McGeoch and McDonald-Evaluation
+ Lab Study-Valid explanation
Context-Dependent Forgetting-Godden and Baddely-Method
Deep sea divers learnt a list of words either underwater or on land. They were then asked to recall these words underwater or on land. There were 4 conditions: 1-Learnt on land- Recall on Land 2-Learnt on land-Recall underwater 3-Learnt underwater-Recall on land 4-Learnt underwater-Recall underwater
Context-Dependent Forgetting-Godden and Baddely-Results
Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions. The external cues were not available, and so this led to retrieval failure
State-Dependent-Forgetting-Carter and Cassaday-Method
They gave anti-histamine drugs to their partcipants. The drugs has a mild sedactive effect, which made them drowsy. This creates a different physiological state. The partcipants had to learn a list of words, and then recall them. There were 4 condtions: 1-Learn on drug-Recall on drug 2-Learn on Drug-Recall when not 3-Learn when not on drug-Recall on drug 4-Learn when not on drug-Recall when not
State-Dependent-Forgetting-Carter and Cassaday-Results
Recall was much worse in non matching conditions. Cues are absent=More forgetting
Leading Questions-Loftus and Palmer-Method
They arranged for participants to watch film clips of car accidents and then gave them questions about the incident. The critical question was a leading question “About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”. There were 5 groups of participants, each given a different verb.
One group had “hit”, while the others had “bumped” “contacted” “collided” and “smashed”
Leading Questions-Loftus and Palmer-Results
The mean estimate speed was calculated for each participant. “Contacted” had a estimate speed of 31.4MPH, while “Smashed” had an estimate speed of 40.5MPH. Suggests that leading questions can effect recall of an event
Post-Event Discussion-Gabbert-Method
Gabbert studied participants in pairs. Each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from a different point of view. They could only see elements of things that the other participant could not. Both participants discussed what they had seen before completing a recall test
Post-Event-Discussion-Gabbert-Results
71% of the participants recalled information that they did not see in the video, but picked up in the post event discussion. The figure in the control group was 0%. Suggests people go along with others for social approval or they believe the other person is right, even if they are right.
Leading Questions-Loftus and Palmer-Evaluation
+Good real life applications
- Artificial tasks- lack of pressure as it is not real
- Demand Characteristics
Post-Event-Discussion-Gabbert-Evaluation
-Individual differences (Own Age bias)
Anxiety- Negative Effect on Recall-Johnson and Scott-Method
They lead partcipants to think that they were going to take part in a lab experiment. While seated in the waiting room, they heard an argument in the next room.
“Low Anxiety Condition”-A man walked through the waiting area, carrying a pen and had grease on his hands
“High Anxiety Condition”- During argument, sound of glass smashing. Man walked through the waiting area with a paper knife covered in blood
Anxiety- Negative Effect on Recall-Johnson and Scott- Results
The participants later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos. 49% of the low anxiety participants managed to pick out the man with the pen. Only a third of participants picked out the man with the knife. Tunnel vision theory suggests that people only focused on the weapon because it caused the anxiety
Anxiety-Positive Effect on Recall-Yuille and Cutshall-Method
Conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver. The shop owner shot a thief dead. There were 21 witnesses, 13 took part. The interviews were 4-5 months after the event, these were compared with the original police statements. Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported. They were also asked to rate how stressed they were at the time of the incident, and if they had had any emotional problems since the event
Anxiety-Positive Effect on Recall-Yuille and Cutshall-Results
They were very accurate and there was little change in 5 months, but some details such as item colour and age/height/weight estimates were less accurate. The participants who reported high stress were most accurate (88% to 75%)
Both Anxiety Studies-Evaluation
- Weapon focus effect may not be relevant
- Field studies can lack control
- Ethical issues
More Important Elements of CI-Milne and Bull-Results
They found out that each technique of the cognitive interview, when used alone, produced more information that a standard police interview would. A combination of Report Everything and Context Reinstatement produced better recall than any of the other conditions
Supports Effectiveness of ECI-Kohnken-Method
He did a meta-analysis, where he combined data from 50 studies about the ECI
Supports Effectiveness of ECI-Kohnken-Results
The enhanced cognitive interview produced more correct information than a standard interview used by the police
