Research Methods Flashcards
describe naturalistic observation
observing a situation without changing the situation at all. An example of this is David Attenborough observations of animals. This approach has high ecological validity.
describe controlled observation
The observer/researcher change/controls the situation he is observing. An example of this is Bandura’s bobo doll study, researching social learning theory. However, experiments using this approach can lack internal validity (as in demand characteristics or population validity).
describe covert observation
When the participants are unaware that they are being observed. Often reduces demand characteristics. Can cause ethical issues as it could be classed as deception or lack consent. However, according to the BPS code of ethics, they would have to be debriefed of the study, assured of confidentiality and if they were unhappy or upset by the observation, extra procedures would have to take place.
describe overt observation
Participants are aware they are being watched. Can cause the hawthorne or the F.U. effect.
describe participant observation
When the researcher/observer is part of the group they are observing (overt), or if the observer is a confederate pretending to be a part of the group (covert). Examples of this could be if an observer went to live with a special group of people (e.g. a indigenous tribe) temporarily, and recorded their interactions with them. An example of the covert kind of participant observation would be if, for example, a group of individuals pretended to be ill, so they could be admitted to hospital, so they could observe how doctors interact with patients.
describe non-participant observation
If the observer watches from a distance, or observers the actions of other’s interactions with other people. An example of this could be watching people through a one-way mirror or watching how two different people interact as a third party.
What does the mnemonic NOIR mean in terms of data?
N- Nominal Data O - Ordinal Data I - Interval Data R - Ratio Data These data forms go up in accuracy (ratio data is often more accurate or reliable than nominal data)
Describe Nominal Data
Data that relies on named categories e.g. results from a survey asking whether you prefer the sun or the daily telegraph, often presented in bar or pie charts.
Describe Ordinal Data
The levels/conditions of a data can be put in an order, e.g. highest to lowest, but are not necessarily numerical. For example what grades people got at GCSE, it goes from order A-F, but it doesn’t really have a numerical value.
Describe Interval Data
Data that is measured on a scale, ordered categories that are subdivided, so it is not just numbers, but uses numerical intervals. Examples of this include centimetres or litres ( like how many litres of water different people in a sample drink a day).
Describe Ratio Data
Continuous data with no categories. There can be no negative numerical data in ratio data, and though it is similar to interval data, the intervals between readings can be split into ratios, e.g. percentages or degrees celcius.
Describe parametric testing
The data in parametric testing must be either interval or ratio data. The sample data must also show normal distribution and must have homogeneity of variance (e.g. it mustn’t have any random spikes or anomolous results).
Describe non-parametric testing
Used when the sample data does not fill the conditions for parametric tests. Often regarded as less sensitive and powerful to specifics. This is because, unlike parametric tests, they require transformation of data.
What are Heuristics?
Heuristics are how your brain copes with making decisions and avoiding decisions and avoiding decision fatigue by not having to deliberate our choices. It is like a schema we apply instead of deliberating or making a hard decision, e.g. having a staple outfit we repeat instead of choosing one in the morning or ordering something we know we’ve liked before in the at a restaurant rather than having to choose something new from the menu.
Describe Availability heuristics
When the brain naturally determines that the likelihood of something is related to its availability. i.e. believing plane crashes are very likely, because we see them a lot on the news and television, when in fact they are incredibly unlikely. This can be used in marketing.
Describe representative heuristics
The brain’s tendency to focus on the individual rather than the bigger picture i.e. being afraid f being struck by lightning in a thunderstorm, even though there is only a 1 in 700 000 chance, or buying lottery tickets/ being disappointed by losing the lottery, despite there only being about a 1 in 14 million chance of winning.
What is framing?
The way information is presented to determine its effect on whether it is successful or not within consumers, for instance framing it in a positive light so more people are likely to buy it.
Describe how the psychological “foot in the door” technique is used in marketing
The target is given “low stakes” or obvious-answer/emotive questions ( such as “You don’t like burning down rainforests” or “Do you care that most rainforests will be depleted in 12 years?”)
They will then be asked to buy the product, and will be more likely to say yes due to coherence heuristics (the idea that once we agree with something once, it’s difficult to change our mind, even if the information changes).
Describe the key features of a laboratory experiment
- Takes place in highly controlled environments
- Researcher controls the independent variable and records/controls the dependant variable
- The experiments often have low mundane realism and ecological validity
Example = the stanford prison experiment
Describe the key features of a field experiment
- These experiments take place in a neutral, everyday setting
- Researcher manipulates the Independent variable and records the effect on the dependant variable (if there is any, the DV is not as controlled as in lab experiments)
-Often has good mundane realism, population validity and ecological validity as the experiment is usually with the general public or in a public place.
Example = That experiment where different races gender and minorities/stereotypes of people were lying in a town square, pretending to be in pain, and they observed how many (unknowing) participants helped the different confederates.
Describe the key features of a Quasi experiment
- can be considered not a true experiment
- The independent variable is based on an existing difference between the participants (e.g. age/gender), so therefor no one manipulates the independent variable, as having different ages and genders etc. in a sample occurs naturally
- Very common, an example would be the numerous studies completed to try and decipher whether men or women are more intelligent.
Describe the key features of a natural experiment
- The researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing independent variable
- Therefore, the independent variable is not controlled, it occurs naturally
- Often used when manipulating the independent variable is unethical
Describe or draw the table you use to remember whether the IV and/or DV are controlled in an experiment
IV DV
______________________________________
L ✓ ✓
F ✓ X Q X ✓ N X X
describe Pavlov’s experimental research
Pavlov is credited with discovering Classical Conditioning. He did this through experimentation involving dogs and their salivary reflex. He discovered how to turn a neutral stimulus into an cs by encouraging an conditioned response that was originally an unconditioned response to a priorly unconditioned response to and unconditioned stimulus. In this case, the neutral stimulus was the ringing of a bell, the unconditioned response was the dog salivating and the unconditioned stimulus being food. The neutral stimulus originally produced no salivation, while the food (UCS) did produce salivation. Pavlov then rung the bell every time he bought the animal food. The dog then began to salivate at the sound of the bell, meaning it became a conditioned stimulus.
What is an opportunity sample? What are its strengths and weaknesses?
An opportunity sample is a sample using the most convenient or available participant sample, i.e. the nearest group of participants who fit he criteria, or people who walk past you on the street. This is good as it is easy and takes considerably less time than other sampling methods. However, the sample is very susceptible to population bias.
What is a Random Sample? What are its strengths and weaknesses?
A sample gathered either through the lottery method (drawing names out of a hat) or random number table (blindly selecting numbered participants from a table) or a random number generator. The positives of this are that it is unbiased, however it takes time as it needs to have a list of the population being tested and the selection methods can also be time consuming.
What is a stratified Sample? What are its strengths and weaknesses?
When sampling, you split the population into relevant subgroups (strata) (e.g. boys or girls, or age groups) and participants are obtained from each of the different strata in proportion to their occurrence in the population. Selection from the strata is done using a random technique.
What is a Systematic Sample? What are its strengths and weaknesses?
When you use a predetermined system to select participants, such as selecting every nth person from a phonebook (where n = any number). This could be considered unbiased, but also be considered not truly unbiased as it is not truly random unless you use a randomized method to select the starting number/starting participant.
What is a Volunteer Sample? What are its strengths and weaknesses?
Usually advertised in a newspaper or on a noticeboard, often advertised in university campus with small compensation. Can cause volunteer bias.
Name three types of self report techniques
Questionnaires, A structured interview and an unstructured interview.
What is a structured interview?
A structured interview has pre-determined questions, it is essentially a questionnaire that is delivered face to face with no deviation from the original questions.
What is an unstructured interview?
Similar to a structured interview, except new questions are developed during the course of the interview, as well as the pre-determined questions. These additional questions are usually developed based on the answers given by the participant.
What are the three guiding principals when writing questions for questionnaires?
Clarity, Bias and Analysis (CBA 🤦♀️)
What does good clarity look like in a question on a questionnaire?
Questions need to be easy to understand. This means not asking questions that could have two meanings, uses of double negatives and double barrelled questions (questions that ask for two separate answer in one sentence).
What does Bias mean when referring to a good/bad question in a questionnaire?
A biased question might make the respondent more likely to give a particular answer. An example of specific bias that commonly occurs when answering questionnaires would be social desirability bias. This would involve the respondents giving answers in order to look more attractive, generous or generally nice, rather than being truthful. A well designed question would avoid this.
What does analysis mean in the context of creating a good or bad question for a questionnaire?
Questions need to be written so that the answers are easy to analyse. For instance, closed questions can be used to make the questionnaire easier to analyse. These involve only giving a few set answers that the respondent could give to a question, rather than an open question (I.e.what do you like most about your job?), which could give different answers from each participant and therefore give results that are hard to analyse and make inferences from. However, closed questions might give answers that don’t truly represent the respondents real thoughts and
What are four important factors for writing a good questionnaire?
Filler questions, Sequence for the questions, Sampling Technique and Pilot Study.
Why are filler questions important for writing a good questionnaire?
Filler questions can be used to include irrelevant topics to distract the respondent from the main purpose of the survey, therefore reducing the chances of demand characteristics (the Hawthorne and F.U. effect).
Why is the sequence of questions important in making a good survey?
It is best, during the questionnaire, to start with the easiest, saving the questions that are more pressing, so might cause feelings anxiety or a defensive attitude until the respondent has got used to the questioning and feels more comfortable.
Why is sampling technique important in creating a good questionnaire?
The sample used to select respondents, as different sub-groups, such as age and gender, could cause different results.
How would using a pilot study help in the creation if a good questionnaire?
By first testing a draft questionnaire on a smaller sample group, the questions can later be refined in response to any errors or difficulties observed in the pilot study.
What is the ethical issue of informed consent?
4 answers
+ Means the researchers have revealed the true aims of the study and the subject still participates.
+ Has drawbacks, knowing the hypothesis/aims can change the participants behavior
+ Considered a basic human right
+ Also involves researchers revealing any risks or benefits the study might cause (though these can be hard or impossible to predict)
What is the ethical issue of deception?
4 answers
+ Deception can be necessary in research studies when the participant knowing all details of the experiment could change their behavior, therefore affecting the results
+ Considered more reasonable to withhold some of the specifics of the study rather than deliberately giving the participant false information.
+ Can prevent the participant from giving informed consent.
+Could put people off future participation in studies or even psychologists altogether
What is the ethical issue involving the right to withdraw?
3 answers
+ Meaning that Participants know they can, and sometimes do, leave the study at any time
+ Can caused a biased sample for those remaining in the study as they are more likely to be obedient or to conform
+ can be compromised by paid experiments, as participants feel it is less acceptable to withdraw.
What is the ethical issue of protection from harm?
4 answers
+ More important studies tend to have higher risk of distress
+ Often difficult to predict any harm that may be caused, so protection can not be guaranteed.
+ Considered acceptable if the risk of harm is no higher than the risk of ordinary life
+ Also considered acceptable if the individual has been informed and agreed to the risk, or if they leave in roughly the study the same state they came in.
What does the ethical issue of confidentiality entail?
4 answers
+ May be compromised if the researcher wishes to publish the findings.
+ Can be supported by guarantee and use of anonymity, but a smaller target group could mean that the results can still be easily tracked back to individual participants.
+ The Data Protection Act (DPA) makes confidentiality a legal right
+ Recording of personal data is only acceptable if the data is not available in a form that could identify participants.
What does the ethical issue of privacy involve?
2 answers
+ Can be difficult to not invade privacy when studying participants without their awareness, i.e. in a field experiment
+Normal privacy should ideally be withheld (like having privacy in your own home) t maintain mundane realism.
How can you help to deal with issues of Informed Consent in an experiment?
3 answers
+Obtaining formal consent to the experiment and conformation of knowing the nature of, purpose of and their role in the experiment.
+ Could ask presumptive consent
+ Offering and exposing the right to withdraw
