Forensics Flashcards
1
Q
What is offender profiling?
A
A behavioral and analytical tool used when trying to solve crimes. It is intended to help investigation narrow down the number of likely suspects of crime by predicting the probable characteristics of the unknown criminal(s) -e.g. their age, background, occupation etc.- using evidence from the crime scene
2
Q
What are the two types of offender profiling?
A
Top-Down Approach and Bottom-Up Approach
3
Q
What are some key features of the top-down approach?
A
It is also called the typology approach. This is when the people who are profiling the criminals have pre-existing conceptual categories of offenders in their minds. They can use the evidence from the crime to fit into either of these categories.
4
Q
What are some key features of the bottom-up approach?
A
When the profilers look at the evidence from the crime and use these to develop likely hypotheses of what the offender is like using their knowledge of psychological theories.
5
Q
What are the two categories of offenders in top-down profiling?
A
organised offenders and disorganised offenders
6
Q
How were the two types of offender developed?
A
It was formed by the FBI’s behavioral science unit in the 1970s. They drew upon data gathered from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers including Ted Bundy, Richard Ramirez etc. They then classified organised/disorganised offenders within these subsections.
7
Q
What are 5 feature of organised offenders?
A
Can have any 5 of the following: -More Intelligent -High degree of control during the crime -violent fantasies may be carried out on the victim -Usually in a skilled, professional occupation -Socially and sexually competent -Uses restraints and hidden weapons - Follow their crimes in the media - Usually married/with a family - Victim is especially targeted as the offender seems to have a type
8
Q
What are 5 features of disorganised offenders?
A
Can have any 5 of the following: -Unskilled work or unemployed -Socially incompetent -Below average intelligent -Tend to live alone and relatively close to where the offense took place - Minimal control in the crime-impulsive -Messy; doesn’t conceal incriminating evidence so evidence is likely to be present at the crime scene -History of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships -Victim is likely to be random - Crime is likely to have no elements of planning
9
Q
What are the six stages of Top-down profiling?
A
Input, Decisions, Assessment 1, Criminal Profile, Assessment 2, Apprehension
10
Q
What occurs in the “input” stage of Top-down profiling?
A
Input of description of the crime scene, background information about the victim and details of the crime itself. All information should be included but only confirmed suspects are used, not possible subjects.
11
Q
What occurs in the “decisions” stage of Top-down profiling?
A
Decisions made about the data and the data is split into meaningful categories. Issues like murder type (i.e. mass/spree/serial), time factors and location factors are considered.
12
Q
What occurs in the “Assessment 1” stage of Top-down profiling?
A
The crime is classified as organised or disorganised
13
Q
What occurs in the “Criminal Profile” stage of Top-down profiling?
A
The profile is made including hypotheses of their likely background, habits and beliefs of the offender which helps in investigation of the offender.
14
Q
What occurs in the “Assessment 2” stage of Top-down profiling?
A
Written report given to the investigator. If new evidence is generated/no suspects are identified the profiles will revert back to stage 2- “decisions”
15
Q
What occurs in the “Apprehension” stage of Top-down profiling?
A
If the suspect is apprehended, the active profile-generating process is reviewed to check the conclusions were legitimate and can be revise for future cases.
16
Q
What was one criticism of the top-down approach suggested by A____n 2002?
A
Alison- She proposed an issue with the dichotomy between organised/disorganised offenders. Crimes can contain aspects of both and criminals can change their behaviors over time. It therefore does not consider individual differences and is too simplistic.
17
Q
What did G___in 2002 suggest was was an issue with the top-down approach?
A
Godwin- He suggested that judgement of what makes a person an organised or unorganised offender is subjective.
18
Q
How can we criticise the FBI Science Unit study that top-down approach was based on relating to methodology?
A
There were some issues with the study. The sample was very small and unusual as they were all serial killers, which makes this less generalisable. They also used a self report design, which would have been invalid as the ps would be prone to exaggeration due to them most likely showing narcissism or arrogance.
19
Q
How can we criticise the FBI Science Unit study that top-down approach was based on relating to temporal validity?
A
AS the study was in the 1970s, we can suggest that the attitudes of serial killers have changed (i.e. less women being persecuted as they are less likely to be seen as weak), suggesting poor temporal validity.
20
Q
How can we criticise the FBI Science Unit study that top-down approach was based on relating to gender?
A
One could argue that the study involved beta bias.
21
Q
What was one criticism of top-down profiling suggested by C_nt_r 2004?
A
He suggested that the criteria have little basis in reality/reliability/support. In a study of 100 serial killers they found no clear division between organised and disorganised types of offender. This shows issues with construct validity/being too simplistic.
22
Q
What is one criticism of top-down that relates to culture?
A
One could argue that it is culturally biased and that the criteria for organised/disorganised offenders is based on stereotypes.
23
Q
Who was the bottom-up method created by? Why?
A
David Canter, so he could catch the railway rapist
24
Q
What is the model of bottom-up approach?
A
the Five Factor Model
25
What are the five features of the five factor approach?
Interpersonal coherence, time and place, criminal characteristics, criminal career, forensic awareness
26
What does the interpersonal coherence feature of the five factor model involve?
Consistency between the way offenders interact with their victims and with others in their everyday lives.
27
What does the time and place feature of the five factor model involve?
The time and location of an offender's crime will communicate something about their own place of residence/employment
28
What does the criminal characteristics feature of the five factor model involve?
characteristics about the offender can help to classify them
29
What does the criminal career feature of the five factor model involve?
An offender's crimes all tend to be committed in similar fashion and helps us predict how their criminal activity can develop as the criminals and crimes in question can change.
30
What does the forensic awareness feature of the five factor model involve?
offenders who show an understanding of a police investigation are more likely to have had previous encounters with the criminal justice system.
31
What s circle theory and who was it developed by?
It was developed by David Canter and Paul Larkin (1993) offenders commit their crimes with a kind of imagined circle.
32
What are the two types of offenders in circle theory?
Marauders- live within the circle of crimes Commuter- Travels to another location but still follows a circle in this other location.
33
What is criminal geographic targeting?
A computerised system developed by Kim Rossmo and based on his formula. This formula creates a 3 dimensional map with special data relating to time, distance and movement to and from crime scenes. The map is called a "jeopardy surface"
34
What is one strength of the bottom-up approach relating to objectivity?
It relies on objective methods. For instance, they use computer programmes and criminal geographic targeting. which objectively focuses on crime location, and the crime scene.
35
What is one limitation of the bottom-up approach relating to data?
All bottom-up techniques use secondary data, so internal validity is uncertain, which makes internal validity uncertain.
36
What is one weakness of the bottom-up approach relating to construct validity?
There are issues with construct validity in circle theory. This is shown by geographical targeting too commonly identifying criminals as marauders. Furthermore, CGT has been rejected by police forces questioning it's ecological validity.
37
What is one limitation of offender profiling relating to ecological validity (with evidence)?
A lot of the evidence is based on self-report either from the investigator or offender. For instance a self report study involving police officers suggested, though 75% thought profiling was useful, only 3% could give an example where profiling actually helped the case.
38
What are the main principles of atavistic form?
It is a historical biological explanation of criminology that proposed that are a subspecies of humans with genetic throwbacks that can not fit into modern society. They can be characterised by specific facial and cranial features.
39
What did F\_\_\_z G\_\_\_ suggest?
Via Phrenology, he suggested that the shape of your head corresponds to your personality, hence why you can tell if someone is a criminal due to the shape of their head.
40
What did C\_\_are L\_\_\_\_\_so suggest? What did his study involve?
Casare Lombroso- He said that criminals were genetic throwbacks and that you could see their criminality in their physical features. He investigated the criminal and facial features of 3839 living and dead criminals and could tell 40% of these people's crimes just by their face, so suggested that 40% of the crimes were accounted for by avarism.
41
What did lombroso suggest where characteristics of all criminals? (4 features)
Strong and prominent jaws, high cheekbones, dark skin, extra toes/nipples/fingers
42
What did lombroso suggest where characteristics of murderers? (3 features)
Bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears
43
What did lombroso suggest where characteristics of sexual deviants?
Glinting eyes and swollen/fleshy lips
44
What are some of the non-physical traits that Lombroso related to criminality?
Tattoos, unemployment and use of slang.
45
What was one way that Lombroso's sample was biased?
The sample was all men and a lot were african.
46
What did Lombroso think of free will/determinism?
He didn't believe in free will and instead supported the idea of humans being similar in nature to animals, as suggested by Galton and Darwin
47
What prejudices did Lombroso's theory suggest?
Racism and ableism
48
What does somatotypes of criminology suggest and who was it made by?
That we can tell the nature of people's crimes based on their body type (i.e. tall and muscular people commit violent crimes, tall and thin people commit petty crimes etc.). This was suggested by Kretschmer in 1921.
49
What did Ch\_\_\_\_\_s G\_\_ing (1913) suggest about Lombroso's theories? What were some issues with this study?
Charles Goring--- He compared 3000 criminals with 3000 non-criminals and concluded that there were no distinct differences, contesting Lombroso. He did, however, admit that criminals seemed to have lower than average intelligence. The assessment of people's features would have been subjective as everyone has different perspectives, and the assessment could be biased due to investigator effect.
50
What did DeLisi (2012) suggest about Lombroso's theories?
He suggested that Lombroso was subject to scientific racism as many of the atavistic features that he identified resembled people of African descent and were described to resemble the working class. This shows cultural bias and cultural relativism.
51
What is one issue with the temporal context of Lombroso's study?
It was conducted during a time period when there was a lot of migration and violence in Italy, so a lot of the population in Italy was African and they were often persecuted for being foreign and put in prison.
52
How did Lombroso's study experience revision and how can this relate to issues and debates?
Lombroso revised his theories to suggest that criminality could be cause by environmental factors. However, this still suggest there is a close relationship between cause and effect, disregarding extraneous variables such as free will, therefore being very determinist.
53
What is one issue with gender bias in Lombroso?
It showed gender bias as they only studies women.
54
Describe the case study of P\_\_\_\_ P. G\_\_\_?
Phineas P Gage- was in a railway accident where he worked in 1894. A rod was driven through his brain (the prefrontal lobe). He recovered physically but his personality changed from being a sober, quiet, family man to being a violent drunk with little impulse control.
55
What is one criticism of Phineas P. Gage relating to determinism?
It could be argued to be determinist as damage to other structures could have been affected by the explosion as well- the change in behavior could be due to them
56
What is one criticism of Phineas P. Gage relating to issues and debates?
Could be argued to be too idiographic.
57
What was the methodology of R\_\_\_e 2009?
Raine- He compared pet scans of 27 psychopaths compared to 32 non-psychopaths.
58
What were the findings of R\_\_\_e 2009?
Raine- In the psychopaths there was an 18% reduction in the amygdala and thinning of the cortex around it. He also found an 11% reduction in grey matter in the prefrontal cortex in those with APD.
59
What does Cadherin do?
It is a protein that slows down axon growth when neurons change shape or structure. It triggers apoptosis of vascular cells around neurons and provides a neural defense against atherosclerosis and oxidative stress. It can also be associated with new neural growth because of this.
60
WHat is Brunner's syndrome?
Brunner syndrome is a rare genetic disorder associated with a mutation in the MAOA gene. It is characterized by lower than average IQ (typically about 85), problematic impulsive behavior (such as pyromania, hypersexuality and violence), sleep disorders and mood swings.
61
What gene creates Cadherin?
CDH13
62
How can childhood trauma affect the CDH13 gene?
Childhood stress/trauma can result in methylation of this gene, which could result in some networks being less well developed or well connected.
63
How does the CDH13 theory relate to Bowlby's theory?
It relates to his suggestion of a critical period- he suggests that if people are deprived of a PCG in infancy, they will develop emotional maladjustment. He supported this when the affectionless psychopaths in his 44 thieves study all had maternal deprivation in childhood. This could have resulted in methylation of the CDH13, preventing certain neural connections from occurring, such as those that create empathy or an inner working model.
64
What are mirror neurons?
Allows you to watch someone doing something and imagine how they might feel- i.e. metarepresentation.
65
What was the methodology and results of K\_\_\_\_\_s et al (2011)?
Keysers In an fMRI a group of participants were shown upsetting texts and videos. This activated the control group's mirror neurons and caused empathy. Participants with APD didn't experience empathy and their mirror neurons were not activated. However, when the APD participants were asked to focus on the feelings of others, they could empathize.
66
What were the conclusions of K\_\_\_\_\_s et al?
Keyers This shows how, though in normal brains the empathy is always turned on, in APD diagnosed people it is turned on and off with conscious effort.
67
What is the MAOA gene/the monoamine hypothesis?
Monoamines include serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline. These are broken down by enzymes called MAO-A to prevent excess. This enzyme is controlled by the MAOA. A lack of MAO-A results in an excess of monoamines, so causes heightened emotions for long periods of time and can result in emotional outbursts.
68
Where is MAOA inherited from?
The X chromosome, so the mother (in men)
69
Why are men more likely to have Brunner's syndrome?
Because men only 1 copy of the MAOA on their 1 X chromosome, they are at an increased risk of a mutation being expressed so the monoamine action being reduced.
70
How can serotonin affect forensics, as suggested by S\_o et al? (and dopamine?)
Seo et al suggested that low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin may predispose people to impulsive aggression and criminal behavior (this could be because this neurotransmitter normally inhibits the PFC). Dopamine may also enhance this effect.
71
How can noradrenaline affect forensics, as suggested by W\_\_gh\_ et al?
Wright High and low levels of noradrenaline are associated with aggression, criminality and violence. Noradrenaline is linked to fight or flight, so this could affect aggression.
72
WHat was the methodology of Br\_n\_\_r et al 1993?
Brunner Studied a large family in the Netherlands where the males are affected by a syndrome of borderline mental retardation and abnormal violent behavior. They had a clinical examination of the family's behavior which was compared to the behavior of those not in the family. DNA was then taken from urine and was analysed.
73
What were the behavioral characteristics shown by the family in Br\_n\_\_r et al 1993? (4)
Brunner et al -Aggression and violence with little to no provocation -sleep disturbances and night terrors -sexual behavior towards sisters and female relatives (the women were not affected) -arson
74
WHat were the results of Br\_n\_\_r et al 1993? How could this have affected the brain/neurotransmitters?
Brunner All of the men had shown mental retardation. all the males showed mutations in the MAOA. This would have limited serotonin and increased dopamine. This could have affected activity of the PFC and the DLPFC.
75
What did Vi\_kk\_n\_n et al (1994) suggest about serotonin?
Virkkunen lower serotonin levels in compulsive criminals compared to controlled criminals.
76
Describe the methodology and results of M\_\_di\_k et al (1984)? (sample size,
Mendick He studied 14427 Danish adoptees to see how many of the criminal adoptees had specific parents. 13.5% of criminals had no criminal parents 14.7% criminals had 1 or more adopted parent 20% criminals had 1 or more biological parent 24.5% were criminal with at least 1 criminal adoptive parent and 1 criminal biological parent
77
How can you easier remember the results of Mendick t al?
Amount of criminalis increased by 1% with adoptive parents, 5% more than this with biological parents, and 5% more than this for 1 criminal adoptive and 1 criminal biological parent.
78
What was the case of Stephen Mobley?
Lived in Georgia and was convicted of killing John C. Collins at a Domino's pizza in 1991. His attorney used the defense that he was genetically predisposed to seek violent solutions to conflict via genetics.
79
What is one evaluation of criminality related to reductionism? What is evidence for this?
Criminality is complex, and explanations that reduce offending behaviour to a genetic or neural level may be inappropriate and overly simplistic. Whilst crime does appear to run in families, so do emotional instability, mental illness, social deprivation and poverty. We can not always reduce criminal behavior to just one factor. The lack of concordance rates of 100% in criminality shows that environmental factors play some part.
80
What is one benefit of the biological explanation of criminality?
It has allowed us to use drug treatments such as SSRIs, SNRIs, benzodiazepines and beta blockers.
81
What is one evaluation of biological explanations of criminality related to ethics?
The Mobley case raised questions as to whether the individual’s genetic make-up could be used as a defence in criminal cases. This biological determinism presents an ethical dilemma because by taking the stance that the offender has no responsibility for their actions could cause significant psychological harm to their victims and have implications for treating offender behaviour It also creates complications in our justice system.
82
What is one evaluation of criminality relating to cause-and-effect?
We assume that the biological factors cause the criminal behavior when in fact the criminal behavior can influence the biological factors. We can not tell if neurotransmitter imbalances are the cause of offending behavior, the result of offending behavior or an extraneous variable, we can only recognise correlations. This suggests reduce internal validity.
83
What is one evaluation of biological explanations of criminality relating to external validity and nature of crimes?
Most of the genetic and neural research relates to the association between these factors and violent or aggressive crimes. However, offending behaviour also includes theft, fraud, drug use and bigamy – all non-violent crimes, so these explanations are not that widely applicable or externally valid.
84
What did Eys\_\_\_k suggests about what psychological features influence criminality?
Eysenck proposed that offending behavior is often formed by having a criminal personality. He argued that this personality type was biological in origin and comes about through the type of nervous system we inherit.
85
What were the two dimensions that Eys\_\_\_k's test for a criminal personality?
Introversion/Extraversion and Neuroticism/Stability. He later added psychoticism/normality.
86
What characteristics did Eysenck suggest contributed to a criminal personality?
Neurotic-Extravert (also high psychoticism)
87
What is the test used to see if someone has a criminal personality? And when was it made?
The Eysenck Personality Inventory It was formulated in the 1960s and was finalised in 1982.
88
How did neuroticism link to the nervous system?
Neurotic's have more reactive sympathetic nervous systems, making them more reactive and easily upset, which could explain offending behaviors.
89
How did Extraversion link to the nervous system?
Extravert's nervous system is constantly under-aroused. They therefore constantly seek excitement and stimulation, which can be risk-taking/dangerous behavior, hence why extraversion is high in offenders.
90
Briefly define socialisation in terms of Eysenck's suggestion?
It is the process in which children are taught to be able to handle delayed gratification through conditioning- they are punished for anti-social behaviors and too id behaviors-- therefore they learn to be anxious or averted to anti-social behaviors or behaviors that involve immediate gratification.
91
How did Eysenck view offending behavior in terms of socialisation?
He viewed offending behavior as developmentally inactive as it is selfish and focuses on immediate gratification.
92
How did Eysenck suggest neurotic extraverts reacted to socialisation?
He suggested that these individuals were difficult to condition, so do not learn to respond to antisocial behaviors with anxiety or delay gratification, so they sometimes perform these antisocial behaviors.
93
How can neuroticism be related to criminal genes?
It could be related to the MAOA gene
94
How neurons relate to extraversion?
Extraverts are said to have under active sympathetic nervous systems, so they need constant external stimuli to be excited. This underactivity of the nervous system could relate to underactivity in mirror neurons, creating a lack of empathy
95
How can Eysenck's personality relate to APD?
- extraverted- psychopaths are often very charming -Antisocial elements of socialisation applies - Aggression often seen in APD
96
How is Eysenck better than the ideas of Lombroso or organised/disorganised offenders?
Better as it doesn't suggest that all criminals are low-functioning.
97
What was the methodology of Eysenck's study?
Eysenck and his wife compared 2070 male participants to a control of 2422 normal males. The offenders had higher levels of E, N and P.
98
What is one criticism of Eysenck as a study (F\_rr\_\_gto\_)
Farrington et al 1982 revised this and found that offenders tended to score more highly on P measures but not always E and N.
99
What is a cognitive distortion?
It is a faulty or biased of thinking that mean we perceive ourselves, others and the world around them in a way that does not match reality. Therefore, their perception is wrong, but they think it is accurate.
100
What are the two cognitive distortions associated with offending behavior?
Hostile Attribution Bias Minimalisation
101
What is hostile attribution bias?
The tendency to misinterpret or misread other people's actions words and expressions as aggressive/threatening. They misread non-aggressive cues and therefore create a violent response. This allows offenders to rationalise their offending behavior by blaming others.
102
What is minimalisation?
Downplaying the seriousness of one's own offense- saying the consequences are less significant than they really are. This helps the individual accept consequent and reduce negative emotions.
103
What is the basic outline of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning?
Kohlberg suggested that this occurred in stages of neural development- the higher the stage, the more sophisticated the moral reasoning. The higher one's biological molarity by having opportunities to discuss and develop their thinking, resulting in a higher stage of moral maturity.
104
What is moral reasoning?
How an individual draws on their own value system to determine if what they are doing is right or wrong.
105
How was Kohlberg's theories formulated?
By interviewing boys and men about the reasons for their moral decisions
106
What are the three levels of morality in Kohlberg's theory?
Preconventional Morality, Conventional Morality and Post-Conventional Morality.
107
What are the two stages involved in the preconventional morality?
Punishment orientation- reasoning based on whether or not the act will lead to punishment Reward Orientation- reasoning based on what can be gained.
108
What are the stages involved in conventional morality?
Good boy/girl orientation- reasoning based on what others expect of you. Social Order orientation- reasoning based n doing duties as a citizen
109
What are the stages involved in post-conventional morality?
Social contract and individual rights orientation- reasoning level on what is impartially right. Democratic rules may be challenged if they infringe the rights of others. Conscience Orientation- reasoning based on one's own ethical principles
110
What sort of moral stage did Kohlberg suggest criminals are more likely to have?
Criminal offenders are more likely to be classified at the preconventional level-so they act to avoid punishment and gain a lack of maturity. Therefore, these people may commit crimes if they can get away with it (avoid punishment) or gain rewards (i.e. money, self gratification).
111
What did P\_l\_\_r and Ho\_\_in 1998 suggest? (relates to comparison of Kohlberg)
Palmer and Hollin They compared the moral reasoning between 210 female non-offenders nd 112 male non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the socio-moral reflection measure which contains moral dilemma related questions. The offenders showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-delinquent groups.
112
What did B\_\_ck\_\_\_n (1993) suggest? (relates to childhood/role models in Kohlberg)
Blackburn Suggests that offenders could have less developed moral stages as they had a lack of moral role play opportunities in childhood.
113
What did G\_bbs (1979) suggest? (relates to simplification of kohlberg) Clue, mention validity
Gibbs Proposed two levels of moral reasoning- mature and immature. This helped differentiate between participants and simplified the model, improving internal validity and inter rater reliability.
114
What did Th\_\_\_nto\_ and R\_id (1982) suggest? (relates to nature of crimes in Kohlberg's theory)
Thornton and Reid Pre-conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes such as robbery, whereas impulsive crimes such as assault did not pertain to any type of reasoning. More common when there is a chance of avoiding punishment, so works for petty crimes but not for serious offenses.
115
What is differential association theory?
It is a social learning theory for crime proposed by Sutherland (1939). It suggests that individuals learn the values/attitudes of interaction with others. The attitudes then influence their own criminal attitudes and behavior. This suggests that offending behavior is learned.
116
What does differential association theory suggest will influence how likely a person is to learn offending behavior?
It depends on how accepting your environment and role models of offending behavior and crimes.
117
According to DAT, who would offenders learn their behaviors from?
Their family or neighbourhood/role models (their ingroup)
118
How would someone learn crime, according to DAT?
They would learn their attitudes towards crime from their environment and would learn specific criminal acts from their environment.
119
What are the most common sources of learning offending behavior?
- Personally relevant (role models) - Long lasting influence - Salient/extreme influence - The influence occurs during the critical period (affects the inner working model)
120
How can we calculate the likelihood of someone commiting a crime according to differential association theory?
If we have knowledge of the frequency, intensity of deviant and non-deviant norms and values that they have been exposed to, we can calculate the likelihood of crime.
121
How was Freud used to explain offending behaviour?
Freud didn't actually address offending behavior, but his theories were applied
122
How is the superego formed?
The superego is formed at the end of the phallic stage when children resolve the oedipus or electra complex. The children internalise the superedo of their same sex parent.
123
What did Bl\_ckb\_\_n (1993) suggest? (relates to offending behavior)
He argued that if the superego is inadequate then offending behavior is inevitable because the id is given free reign.
124
What did freud suggest about women and the superego?
He suggested that women wanted to identify with their father, but couldn't, so settled for following their mother, and as this was a second choice they were considered more immoral.
125
What are the three different types of inadequate superego?
The weak/underdeveloped superego The deviant superego The over-harsh/underdeveloped superego
126
What are the features of the weak/underdeveloped superego?
If the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, the child can not internalise their superego as there is no opportunity for identification. Therefore there would be little control over anti social behavior and the child would follow the id.
127
What are the features of the deviant superego?
If the child internalises a immoral or deviant superego (e.g. if the child's parent is a criminal), Therefore, the child does not associate wrongdoing with guilt.
128
What are the features of the over-harsh/overdeveloped superego?
Internalised the superego of a very strict same-sex parent, so they develop an excessively harsh superego. This means that the individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety as anytime they act on the id, they would feel bad. This may, unconsciously,drive the individual to offend with a wish to be caught so they can satisfy the superego's overwhelming need for punishment and reduce their feelings of guilt.
129
How could suggesting that a person is an offender because they didn't have a same sex parent cause issues?
It is very determinist, disregards free will (which could complicate the justice system) and shows poor temporal validity as there is research suggesting that having a single parent family doesn't increase risk of offending.
130
Why could one suggest that Freud's approach to criminality is pseudoscientific instead of scientific?
As it is just an application of Freud's theories by Blackburn, with no studies to support it, so has little falsifiability and is also based off idiographic secondary data (case studies).
131
How is the psychodynamic explanation of offending gender biased?
- It is androcentric - It demonises single mothers - It doesn't explain female offenders - It suggests women are more immoral, which could suggest social sensitivity.
132
How could you Kohlberg to evaluate the idea of the over-harsh superego causing offending behavior?
The over-harsh superego suggests that offenders seek punishment. However, Kohlberg suggested that offenders offend as they are stuck in preconventional morality and they will offend as long as they know they will not be punished. Therefore, the two contest each other.
133
How can Mendick be used to evaluate the idea of the deviant superego causing offending behavior?
In Mendick's study, 13.4% of the criminal adoptees had no criminal parents. This shows how you do not need a criminal parent to offend. The rest did have criminal parents. Therefore, it contests the idea of having criminal parents creating a deviant superego, causing you to offend.
134
what theory of criminality supports the idea of the deviant superego?
Differential association theory
135
What is custodial sentencing?
Involves a convicted offender being punished by serving time in prison or another closed institution
136
What are the four aims of custodial sentencing?
Deterrence, incapacitation, retribution, rehabilitation
137
What is the idea of deterrence in custodial sentencing?
The unpleasant prison experience is meant to put off offenders and the rest of society from offending. This is based on the ideas of operant conditioning and vicarious punishment (slt)
138
What is the idea of incapacitation in custodial sentencing?
The offender is taken out of society to prevent them from reoffending, therefore protecting the public
139
What is the idea of retribution in custodial sentencing?
Enacting rage for the crime, allowing for the family/victim to have a sense of justice
140
What is the idea of rehabilitation in custodial sentencing?
based on the fact that the offender can be reformed and then made into a better person using education or therapy, making them better adjusted when they are back in society
141
What are some issues with custodial sentencing?
violence, safety, overcrowding, mental health of staff, poor regulation, drugs, inates worsening each other,
142
What are some of the negative effects of custodial sentencing (any 5 of these 8)
Stress and depression Institutionalisation prisonisation overcrowding and lack of privacy deindividuation Effects on the family labelling positive effects
143
What is recidivism?
The tendency to relapse into a previous way of behaving.
144
What are recidivism rates like in the UK? Who suggested this?
46% of offenders are reconvicted within one year of release and over 67% of under 18s are reconvicted within a year. This was suggested by the Prison Reform Trust
145
What is the cost of recidivism?
£9.5 billion a year
146
What is Norway's model of imprisonment?
Some of the lowest recidivism rates in the world. More open prisons and greater emphasis on rehabilitation and gaining skills. However, it is very expensive.
147
What is one criticism of custodial sentencing relating to mental health? (2 statistics)
In the last 20 years, suicide rates among offenders are 15 times higher than the rest of the population. The Prison Reform Trust suggested that 25% of men in prison reported symptoms of psychosis. This shows that custodial sentencing can induce mental illness.
148
What are behavior modifications?
Behavior modifications are programmes using applications of the behaviorist approach that that are designed with the aim of reinforcing obedient behavior in offenders in the hope that the behavior will continue, whilst punishing disobedience in the hope that this will become extinct (so is based on operant conditioning).
149
what is the model used for behavior modification in prison?
The token economy system
150
When are tokens given in token economy?
Immediately each time that an offender performs a desirable behavior
151
What values do the tokens in token economy have? What type of reinforcers are they?
They have no value, but they are secondary reinforcers, as they derive their value from their association with reward, as they can be swapped for more tangible rewards (primary reinforcers) such as cigarettes.
152
What must people who interact with people partaking in token economy do?
All follow the same regime of selective reinforcement
153
What is a conjugal visit?
a scheduled visit in which an inmate of a prison is permitted to spend several hours or days in private with a visitor, usually their legal spouse. The parties may engage in sexual activity.
154
What did D'Ales\_\_\_ suggest about conjugal visits?
D'Alessio He suggested that they they may reduce sexual and physical violence in prisons.
155
What is one ethical issue of prison employment? How does it relate to token economy?
As the jobs give money and reinforces a good work ethic, so could be part of token economy, but inmates can earn as little as £10 a week for a 40 hour week, which can be equated to slave labour
156
What did C\_hen and Filip\_za\_ (1971) suggest about token economy and how it affects recidivism?
Cohen and Filipczak
They found that, after 2 years, the token economy groups were less likely to reoffend. However, after 3 years, rates of recidivism went back to reflecting national statistics. Therefore, one could argue that the effects of token economy are only short term
157
What did Bass\_\_t and Blan\_\_ard (1977) suggest about what role staff consistency plays in token economy?
Bassett and Blanchard
Benefits of token economy were lost when staff applied the rules inconsistently.
158
What did Mo\_a and A\_\_tenb\_rg suggest about the ethics of token economy?
Moya and Achtenburg
That, as the offenders are not able to choose whether or not they participate in the programme, so removing their privileges against their will could be argued to be unethical
159
What did Field (2004) suggest about youth offenders and token economy?
That in a youth offender setting, prisoners responded more positively when rewards were more immediate and more frequent.
160
What did Novaco suggest about cognitive factors and anger? How is this reinforced?
He suggested that cognitive factors trigger the anger that preceeds aggressive behavior. This is reinforced by the feeling of control people feel when they get angry.
161
What type of therapy is anger management?
Anger management is a CBT as it aims to enable offenders to recognise anger triggers and develop conflict resolution techniques.
162
How is anger management therapy conducted?
In small groups with about 10 sessions.
163
What are the three stages of anger management?
Cognitive preparations, skill acquisition and application practice
164
What happens in the cognitive preparation stage of anger management therapy?
The offender learns to recognise triggering situations for their anger. The therapist also helps them challenge irrational interpretation of events that trigger anger.
165
What happens in the skill acquisition stage of anger management therapy?
Techniques learned to deal with triggering situations, such as positive self-talk, assertiveness, communication, skills, relaxation methods and/or meditation
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What happens in the application practice stage of anger management therapy?
The offender applies skills in role play of past triggering events. Successful negotiation is met by positive reinforcement from the therapist. Later, the offender carries this out in the real world. This is effective, facilitates the rehabilitation and reduces the likelihood of reoffending.
167
What does the graph relating to the stages of anger look like?
168
What does the graph for reasoning when we're angry look like?
169
What mnemonic can you use to rember the stages in top down approach?
I Didn't Ask, Care Plan Approach Assholes
