Memory

Question 1

What sort of information is stored in the Short Term Memory and how does it get logged there?

Answer 1

Short Term Memory stores memories that we recall straight away (or within a minute- 18 seconds usually). We process it through rehearsal (repeating the thought over and over).

Question 2

What is acoustic coding?

Answer 2

when, during rehearsal, inputs are associated with each other through repeated sounds, rhythms and sounds i.e. we associate the memories with sound sequences and repetition/similar sizes, but the associations don’t tend to have meanings. For instance, if you remember a sequence of words (CAD,CAM,MAC,MAM) because they look the same or are the same size.

Question 3

Name a study that makes the link between Acoustic Coding and Short Term Memory.

Answer 3

Baddeley’s Study

Question 4

Describe the method of B_______y’s experiment

Answer 4

Baddeley used memorising word lists to test how different codings are used in short and long term memory. The word lists either had the word associated via acoustic coding or semantic coding (i.e. just sounding the same or having similar meanings).

Question 5

Describe the findings of B_____y’s study

Answer 5

Baddeley– That STM is largely coded acoustically, while LTM is largely coded semantically.

Question 6

How does long term memory relate to short term memory?

Answer 6

Information is only stored in long term memory after it is stored in short term memory. The memory is rehearsed through elaborative rehearsal, so it can be semantically coded and retained permanently.

Question 7

What sort of Coding is used in long term memory?

Answer 7

The coding in long term memory must be semantic, meaning it has to be converted from the acoustic coding in short term memory through specific types of rehearsal.

Question 8

What was M____r’s 1956 theory linking memory and numbers?

Answer 8

Miller wrote the theory of the magic number. This could be formulated as 7+/- 2. He concluded that immediate memory could remember only 5 to 9 items (7+ or 7- 2). This theory is now used a lot, for instance in the days of the week and the number of notes in musical scales.

Question 9

What is one other approach/theory of M____rs?

Answer 9

Miller— the theory of chunking. Tis suggests that we can remember more if we break information down into 5-9. This relates to Miller’s 1956 number theory. In this way, we can remember 5-9 words just as easily as remembering 5-9 letters.

Question 10

Describe the method of one study related to the Capacity of Short term memory

Answer 10

Jacob’s Digit Span Test (1887)- The researcher recited a number of digits and participants had to recall the digits in the same order. The researcher would then increase the sequence by one digit and the participant had to recall the numbers again. The participant kept doing this until until the participant recalled the digits incorrectly.

Question 11

What were the findings of Jacob’s study and how does this relate to the capacity of Short term memory?

Answer 11

• Eight year old children could recall on average 6.6 digits
• 19 year olds could recall on average 8.6 digits
  The mean in all participants for recalling items is 9.3, whereas the mean for recalling numbers is 7.3. Not only did this support Miller’s number theory, but it showed that short term memory is very limited, and that it’s capacity can increase with age.

Question 12

Describe the method of one study related to the Duration of Short term memory

Answer 12

Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of 24 student’s short term memory. Each participant was tested over eight trials. In each trial, the the participant was given a consonant syllable and a 3 digit number to remember Participants were then asked to recall the figure either after 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds.

Question 13

What were the findings of Jacob’s study and how does this relate to the capacity of Short term memory?

Answer 13

• Eight year old children could recall on average 6.6 digits
• 19 year olds could recall on average 8.6 digits
  The mean in all participants for recalling items is 9.3, whereas the mean for recalling numbers is 7.3. Not only did this support Miller’s number theory, but it showed that short term memory is very limited, and that it’s capacity can increase with age.

Question 14

Describe the method of one study related to the Duration of Short term memory

Answer 14

Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of 24 student’s short term memory. Each participant was tested over eight trials. In each trial, the the participant was given a consonant syllable and a 3 digit number to remember Participants were then asked to recall the figure either after 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds.

Question 15

What were the findings of P______n and P______n’s 1959 study?

Answer 15

Peterson and Peterson
On average: 
After 3 seconds: 90% were correct
After 9 seconds: 20% were correct
After 18 seconds: 2% were correct
this suggests that Short Term memory has a very short duration (18 seconds), especially if verbal rehearsal is prevented.

Question 16

What is the method of one study related to the Duration of Long term memory

Answer 16

Barhick’s 1975 study tested 400 people ages 17-74 on their memories of their university classmates. He used two tests: A photo recognition test of 50 photos and a free recall test. In the photo test, participants were shown 50 photos of their classmates and asked to identify the people in the photos. In the free recall test, participants were asked to remember and recite any names they could remember from their graduating class

Question 17

What were the findings of B_____k’s 1959 study and what did they show about the duration of Long Term Memory?

Answer 17

Bahrick– Participants tested within 15 years of graduating identified 90% of the people in the photos accurately, whereas people who graduated up to 48 years ago, only identified 70% of the photos accurately.
In the free recall test, those who had graduated within 15 years were 60% accurate, whereas those who had graduated within 48 years were 30% accurate.

Question 18

Describe the Multi Store Model in a flow chart

Answer 18

Environmental stimuli →→→→Sensory Memory/Immediate Memory →→→→attention must then be focused on the specific memory in order for it to be put into the… →→→→
Short Term Memory →→→→ processed using Maintenance Rehearsal →→→→ processed using elaborative rehearsal →→→→Long Term Memory.

Question 19

How can memories retrieved from our long term memory be distorted over time?

Answer 19

They can then be retrieved and brought to the short term memory/given attention , but every time the memory is retrieved and then sent back to the LTM using elaborative rehearsal, it brings new information with it based on the context when recalling the event and distorts/changes the memory.

Question 20

How can Decay occur during Sensory Memory?

Answer 20

We experience a ton of environmental stimuli everyday, but if you pay attention to a stimuli/ memory in the sensory memory it can then be processed into the Short Term Memory and retained. If it is not focused on, or given attention, it can decay and not be registered (like how you probably don’t remember what colour the first car you saw today was)

Question 21

How can someone forget something due to the Short term Memory?

Answer 21

In the short term memory, a memory needs to be rehearsed in order to be stored. If the memory is not rehearsed or repeated, it will be forgotten.

Question 22

How can a memory be displaced?

Answer 22

if too much information is given, to the point that you forget older memories to make space for new ones, this is called displacement.

Question 23

Describe the findings of S_____g’s 1960 study

Answer 23

Sperling–Sensory Memory can not hold information for very long as information decays rapidly in the energy store without attention.

Question 24

What is the Serial Position Effect comprised of?

Answer 24

The primary effect and the recency effect

Question 25

What is the primary effect?

Answer 25

The tendency for people to remember something at the beginning of a list or experience.This could be because of these items being rehearsed more.

Question 26

What is the Recency effect?

Answer 26

The tendency for people to remember the last five items in a list or experience. This is because these items and memories have been inputted too recently for them to have decayed yet.

Question 27

How does Serial Position effect explain displacement?

Answer 27

Items in the middle of a list/experience are more likely to be displaced than at the start or the end of the list/experience.

Question 28

What is one study that showed Serial Position effect? (briefly outline the method)

Answer 28

Glanzer and Canitz (1966) Participants were shown 20 words, one word at a time, and were then asked to recall any words they remembered after the short duration while shown the words. The most commonly remembered words were at the start and the end of the list.

Question 29

Why was Scoville an idiot?

Answer 29

He did not realise that the hippocampus controlled memory and not epilepsy.

Question 30

What are the three types of long term memory that people inferred from Henry Molaison's case?

Answer 30

Episodic, Semantic and Procedural.

Question 31

What are Episodic memories?

Answer 31

It stores narrative consciousness, i.e. the memory can be told in a story/narrative. These memories are controlled by the hippocampus.

Question 32

What are Semantic memories?

Answer 32

These are factual memories, e.g. memories that memories that everyone experiences similarly, for example place names.

Question 33

What are Procedural memories?

Answer 33

These are unconscious physical memories (i.e. writing or cycling). They are controlled by the cerebellum.

Question 34

Who was Henry Molaison (HM)?

Answer 34

He was a famous case study. He was in a car accident and later discovered that he had contracted epilepsy. He was neglected by his family because of this, so tried to get an experimental surgery to remove his hippocampus in an attempt to help the epilepsy. However, he seemed to lose his short term memory, but not his long term memory, and could still recall things we assume we would not be able to remember without our short term memory. Therefore, he helped to debunk the Multi-Store Model.

Question 35

What was the aim of the B______y and H___h study (1974)?

Answer 35

Baddeley and Hitch--- To prove that memory is formed not just in one store, but in a number of different stores.

Question 36

What were the findings of B______y and H___h's 1974 study?

Answer 36

Baddeley and Hitch--- the researchers found that if you do two similar memory tasks (i.e. two visual tasks) at the same time, you do not perform as well as if you do them separately. However, if you do the visual memory task whilst doing a verbal task, there is no interference, and the results are just as good as if you did them separately. This proves that short term memory is made up of more than one component.

Question 37

How does the Working Memory model differ to the multi-store model?

Answer 37

The main components (sensory memory traveling to the STM through attention, being rehearsed and then being stored in the Long term memory), The Short Term memory is stored in 4 different sections.

Question 38

What are the four different subdivisions of the Short Term memory in the working memory model?

Answer 38

The central executive, the phonological loop, the episodic buffer, the visuospatial sketchpad.

Question 39

What is the function of the Central Executive?

Answer 39

The CE reviews data from the senses, but it can't hold it for long, as it has a limited capacity. It processes resources/information from the slave systems (all the other subdivisions). It coordinates all of these elements into your memories, like an executive producer of a film.

Question 40

What is the function of the Phonological Loop? | What are it's two subsections job?

Answer 40

It deals with auditory information and remembers word order- it is often called the inner ear. It can be divided into the phonological store and the auditory process. The phonological store holds the words and sounds we hear whereas the articulatory process helps us remember word order, separate specific noises from background noise and other functions

Question 41

What is the function of the visuospatial sketchpad?

Answer 41

It is were visual and spatial information is stored. it is used when you have to carry out a spatial task (i.e. traveling from one room to another, or counting the windows in a building),as it stores visual info (what things look like) and spatial info (the relationship between things).

Question 42

Describe some findings of Logle's 1995 study that determined that the visuo-spatial sketchpad has two sections

Answer 42

Logle found that VSS can be divided into: A visual cache which stores information about visual information e.g. shape and colour and an inner scribe, which the arrangements of objects in your vision and the relationship between objects.

Question 43

What is the function of the Episodic Buffer?

Answer 43

The general store of the model, where the information is collected before it gets stored in the LTM. It holds information relating to both visual and auditory information. The Episodic Buffer records information from the other three regions of the STM, as well as recording a sense of time sequencing , basically recording events in a story-like episodic manner. However, it has a limited capacity.

Question 44

What is word length effect?

Answer 44

The phonological store can only hold the amount of information that you can say in 1.5-2 seconds. However, this disappears if a person is given an articulatory suppression task (E.g. repeatedly saying a word like "bill, bill, bill" while reading the list).

Question 45

How does Word Length Effect support the theory of the Working Memory Model?

Answer 45

The fact that word length effect does not apply when accompanied by an articulatory suppression task shows that there are at least two separate processes in remembering words

Question 46

What are the two opposing views relating to anxiety affecting memory, and what studies correspond to these views?

Answer 46

The view that Anxiety helps create strong memories (supported by Christian and Hubinette 1993), and the view that anxiety makes memory formation worse (Johnson and Scott 1976).

Question 47

What was the aim of Ch__st___son and H_bin____s' 1993 study?

Answer 47

Christianson and Hubinette | To investigate the effects of anxiety on eyewitness recall.

Question 48

``` Describe the method of Ch__st___son and H_bin____s' 1993 study, include: Participants Duration/timing of experiment Independant variables Dependant Variables ```

Answer 48

Christian and Hubinette Asked 58 eyewitnesses to recall their memory of a real bank robbery 4-15 months after the incident. in the first independent variable, participants had the role of the victim (the bank teller) and the second independent variable had the participants who were customer bystanders. The dependant variable was to what extent the details given by the eye witness testimony matched the CCTV footage of the event.

Question 49

What were the findings from Ch__st___son and H_bin____s' 1993 study?

Answer 49

Christian and Hubinette All of the eyewitness victims (bank tellers) had above 75% average accuracy in their testimony (while under the anxiety of being robbed). Therefore, participants reporting more anxiety had overall better recall.

Question 50

What was the conclusion of Ch__st___son and H_bin____s' 1993 study?

Answer 50

Christian and Hubinette | That Semantic and Episodic Memory is better when anxious.

Question 51

What was the aim of J_____n and S___t's 1976 experiment?

Answer 51

Johnson and Scott | To investigate the effect of anxiety on eyewitness recall.

Question 52

What were the independent variable and dependent variable of J_____n and S___t's 1976 experiment?

Answer 52

Johnson and Scott Both conditions witnessed a public argument between two confederates, but in the first independent variable, the witnesses saw the confederates holding a greasy pen, whereas in the other variable, the confederates were holding a bloody knife. The dependant variable was how accurately the witness identified the person holding the instrument (aggressor) some time after the argument.

Question 53

What were the findings of J_____n and S___t's 1976 experiment?

Answer 53

Johnson and Scott People who witnessed the confederate holding a pen had 49% accuracy when identifying the aggressor, while those who witnessed the aggressor holding the bloody knife had 33% accuracy identifying them.

Question 54

What was the conclusion of J_____n and S___t's 1976 experiment?

Answer 54

Johnson and Scott Though it was expected that the heightened of witnessing the aggressor holding a bloody knife would better memory cognition, weapon focus effect caused these participants to have lower accuracy in their identification.

Question 55

According to the Y_____s-D_ds_n curve, how are anxiety levels and quality of performance related?

Answer 55

Yerkes-Dodson They are proportional in a curve- meaning that quality of performance increases with stress up to a certain point, ater which quality of performance decreases with stress.

Question 56

According to the Y_____s-D_ds_n, what are the different levels of anxiety?

Answer 56

Yerkes-Dodson | (from low to high) Sleep, Boredom, mild alertness, optimal level, stress, anxiety, panic.

Question 57

What is the mnemonic you use for the the levels of anxiety in the Y_____s-D_ds_n curve?

Answer 57

Yerkes-Dodson | Slippery Barnacles Make Awesome Octopus Lozenges, Soothes Agitated Parts.

Question 58

How does the Yerkes-Dodson curve differ from the Catastrophe Theory of anxiety?

Answer 58

In catastrophe theory, after a certain point of anxiety are performance level plateaus and we are unable to function, rather than having a gradual, curved decline.

Question 59

What is one reason why post-event recall and discussion might not be completely accurate?

Answer 59

When asked to recall the memory, the questionee will have to reconstruct the memory in their mind. However, each recall will involve the memory being processed between long term memory and short term memory, and each recall will distort the original memory because of new information/environment being involved during rehearsal.

Question 60

What was the aim of L____s and P____r (1974)?

Answer 60

Loftus and Palmer | To test if the language used (in the leading questions) during eyewitness testimony can alter the memory of an event.

Question 61

What was the specifics in the method of L____s and P____r (1974)? (Experimental type, Experimental design, Independent Variable and Dependant Variable)

Answer 61

Loftus and Palmer The study was a laboratory experiment, using independent group design. In the two conditions they used different versions of the independent variable, which was what verb was used to describe a car crash (e.g. hit, collided, bumped, smashed) when questioning participants on the event. The dependant variable was what speed the participants estimated the car to have been travelling in hindsight.

Question 62

What was the procedure used for L____s and P____r (1974)? eg. sample, methodology

Answer 62

Loftus and Palmer The experiment involved 45 students. They all watched 7 film clips of car accidents. These students were then asked questions about these videos after being split into 5 groups of 9 students. Each group was asked a question testing different IVs (e.g. "how fast were the cars travelling when they HIT each other?" for one group, and "how fast were the cars travelling when they BUMPED each other?" for another group.

Question 63

Name a study that demonstrates how environmental, cultural or circumstantial factors can affect eyewitness testimony.

Answer 63

Allport and Postman 1947. After reading a report of a mugging on a local subway, participants were asked to identify the criminal described in the report. Most participants reported the participant to be black, despite no specification of race. This was due to 1940s conventions in culture and racism.

Question 64

What are the three types of long-term memory?

Answer 64

episodic, Semantic and Procedural.

Question 65

What is an episodic memory?

Answer 65

A memory that entails the specific details of an event, the context of the event and the emotion in the event. The event is usually remembered as occurring as part of a larger sequence, i.e. your first day in school.

Question 66

What is a semantic memory?

Answer 66

Semantic memories are memories that are shared by everyone who experiences an event (e.g. not a memory only one person would experience), for example, what the capital of England

Question 67

What is a procedural memory? | And how is it different to semantic and episodic memory

Answer 67

Memories relating to life skills, such as knowing how to tie your shoelaces, or ride a bike. These skills/memories are typically acquired using skills and practice. These are implicit memories, so we are less aware of them as they have become automatic (unlike semantic and episodic memories). When we try and focus on a procedural task, we often can't complete, as it stops the automatic process.

Question 68

What region of the brain is Episodic memory associated with?

Answer 68

The Hippocampus and the temporal lobe.

Question 69

What region of the brain is Semantic memory associated with?

Answer 69

The Temporal lobe

Question 70

What region of the brain is Procedural memory associated with?

Answer 70

The cerebellum, the Basal Ganglia and the limbic system.

Question 71

What is Interference (forgetting) ?

Answer 71

An explanation for forgetting in terms of one memory disrupting the ability to recall another. This is most likely to occur when the two memories have some similarity.

Question 72

What is Proactive Interference?

Answer 72

A type of interference used in the explanation for forgetting. It is when past learning interferes with current attempts to learn something (i.e. trying to learn flashcards after you've already learned 150).

Question 73

What is Retroactive Interference?

Answer 73

A type of interference used in the explanation for forgetting. It is when current attempts to learn something interfere with past learnings (I.e. memorizing a song, and then someone plays a different song immediately after you have learnt the original song).

Question 74

Name one study that proved/Supported Retroactive Interference theory

Answer 74

Muller and Pilzecker

Question 75

Briefly outline The case study of M____r and P__z__ker (1900)

Answer 75

Muller and Pilzecker They gave participants a list of nonsense syllables to learn for 6 minutes and then, after a retention interval, asked participants to recall the list. They also repeated this, but gave the second group of participants a separate task during the retention interval between initial learning and recall (they were shown and asked to describe paintings). These participants (the second group), did not recall the syllables as well.

Question 76

Name one study that proved/Supported Proactive Interference theory

Answer 76

Benton Underwood (1957)

Question 77

Briefly outline the findings of The case study of B____n U_______d (1957)

Answer 77

Benton Underwood He analysed findings from a number of studies and concluded that when participants have to learn a series of words from a word list, they do not learn the later words in the sequence as well as the earlier words in the sequence. For example, if the participant mastered 10 or more lists, after 24 hours, they would remember only 20% of what they learned. However, if they only memorised one list, they could remember 70% of the words.

Question 78

How does similarity of test materials relate to interference?

Answer 78

Interference is strongest the more similar that the the items are.

Question 79

What is Retrieval Failure?

Answer 79

Occurs due to the absence of cues. It is an explanation for forgetting based on the the idea that the memory does exist, but you can't retrieve it. As retrieval depends on cues, a lack of cues would cause a lack of retrieval.

Question 80

What are cues?

Answer 80

cues are things that serve as a reminder. They can be meaningfully linked, environmental cues (a specific room) or cues related to your mental state (like being drunk).

Question 81

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Answer 81

The idea that recall is most effective if a cue/information present when encoding the memory is also present when retrieving the memory.

Question 82

What is one case study that supports the encoding specificity principle?

Answer 82

Endel Tulving and Donald Thomson (1973)

Question 83

What was the method of E___l T_____g and D____d T_____n's study?

Answer 83

Endel Tulving and Donald Thomson Participants were told to learn 48 words belonging to 12 categories. Each word was presented as the category and the word (e.g. the participant would memorize fruit-apple). The participants were split into two conditions. Participants either had to use free recall or were given cues in the form of the category name, in cued recall (e.g. fruit would be the cue for apple).

Question 84

What were the findings of E___l T_____g and D____d T_____n's study?

Answer 84

Endel Tulving and Donald Thomson | In the free recall condition, average 40% of words were recalled. In the cued recall, 60% of words were recalled.

Question 85

What is context-dependent forgetting?

Answer 85

Recall can be more successful when the context it was encoded in is matched during recall. If the memory is attempted to be recalled in a different context, this could cause retrieval failure.

Question 86

Name two studies that prove/support Context dependent forgetting

Answer 86

One example would be a study by Ethel Abernethy and another would be Godden and Baddeley.

Question 87

VERY BRIEFLY outline E___l A______y's study

Answer 87

Ethel Abernethy Basically, she tested a bunch of her students regularly, but with the students in 4 conditions. Some were always in the same room they were taught in with the same teacher, others were always in the same classroom with a different teacher, some with the same teacher, but in a different classroom and some in a different room with a different teacher. Those who stayed in the same room with the same teacher performed the best (assumedly due to the presence of familiar memory cues).

Question 88

VERY BRIEFLY outline G____n and B_____y study

Answer 88

Godden and Baddeley They investigated contextual cues. The participants were scuba divers. Four conditions. They were asked to learn a series of words either on land or underwater. They were then tested either on land or underwater. The highest test results were in the condition were the initial context matched the recall environment (i.e. learnt on land and tested on land.)

Question 89

what is State-dependant forgetting?

Answer 89

What state you are when you learn/encode a memory can also be a code. Therefore, if you are in the same state during recall of a memory as you were when you encoded the memory, successful recall is more likely (and vice versa).

Question 90

What is one study that helps prove/support the theory of state-dependent forgetting?

Answer 90

Goodwin Et Al (1969)

Question 91

VERY BRIEFLY outline the G_____n Et Al (1969) study

Answer 91

Goodwin et al There were four conditions. The participants were all men. Some were asked to remember a list of words while drunk, while others were asked to remember a list of words while sober. After 24 hours, the men were tested again. Some were sober during testing and some were drunk (again) during testing. Information was best recalled when tested in the same state.

Question 92

Name two types of Post-Event discussion that could possibly affect Eyewitness Testimony?

Answer 92

Conformity Effect and Repeat Interviewing

Question 93

Describe Conformity Effect

Answer 93

If a lot of people witness an event, they might each have their own perception. If they discuss their perceptions with each other, they could reach a consensus view of what happened, to please everyone, that might not be as accurate.

Question 94

Describe Repeat Intervieewing

Answer 94

The more a person is interviewed, the higher the chance that the cues/questions from the last interview will be incorporated into the current interview's testimony (like Chinese whispers). Leading questions in an interview can also alter a person's testimony.

Question 95

What are four features of The Cognitive Interview?

Answer 95

Changing the order, Changing the perspective, mental reinstatement and reporting everything.

Question 96

Who was S____n K____o and why was he one of the reasons for creating the cognitive interview?

Answer 96

Stefan Kiszco was convicted for the murder of an 11 year old girl in 1976. He "confessed" this after two days of police questioning. However, Stefan had very high anxiety and a low IQ, so deliberately falsely confessed to the crime, as the intensive questioning and repeated interviews severely affected him. He was incarcerated for 16 years before his innocence was discovered.

Question 97

What are 3 strengths of the cognitive interview?

Answer 97

- It is cleverly structured - it gives up to 50% more recalled information than standard interview techniques (though this is not necessarily accurate information) - it has open questions that allow the witnesses to report the memory in their own words.

Question 98

What are 4 risks of the Cognitive Interview?

Answer 98

- It is very time consuming - the careful and specific measures that must be taken are very intensive for the interviewer - the interview is only effective if the interviewee is co-operative with the questions - there is still a risk of the interviewing using leading questions.

Question 99

What is Mental Reinstatement in a cognitive interview?

Answer 99

The interviewer will ask the interviewee to describe teir surroundings during the event. This reinstates the context of the event for the interviewee, which could improve recall (by reducing context-dependent forgetting) and allows the interviewer to obtain specifics without the use of leading questions.

Question 100

What is Report Everything in a cognitive interview?

Answer 100

The interviewer, instead of asking about specific details, will ask the witness to "report everything" they witnessed occuring. This helps the interviewer avoid leading questions as well as not causing the witness to reconstruct the memory due to focussing on certain specifics in the event.

Question 101

What is Changing the Order in a cognitive interview?

Answer 101

When the interviewer asks about the event in a different order than chronological (i.e., in a car crash, from the crash backwards). This changes the schema in recalling the information, so could reveal new information (therefore avoiding schema interference), reduces repetition affecting the memory and it is less episodic/story-like, so will reduce exaggeration.

Question 102

What is Changing the perspective in a cognitive interview?

Answer 102

When the interviewer asks the witness to recount the event from someone else's perspective. This could reduce the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony, as different perspectives would experience different stress levels, and an analytical approach could reduce stress.