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Psychology A Level > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What two neurotransmitters is OCD thought to be related to?

A

Dopamine and Serotonin

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2
Q

What two genes have been linked to OCD?

A

COMT and SERT

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3
Q

How does the SERT stipulate OCD?

A

The SERT gene is responsible for producing an enzyme that helps transport serotonin and support’s the neurotransmitter’s function. The SERT gene can therefore inhibit the transport of serotonin, which results in lower levels of the neurotransmitter.

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4
Q

How does the COMT gene stipulate OCD?

A

Dopamine production is regulated by a gene called the COMT gene (as this gene gene controls the production of a specific enzyme that breaks down dopamine). A variation of this gene has been found in OCD patients which produces lower levels of COMT, resulting in higher levels of dopamine.

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5
Q

`Name a study that linked OCD to dopamine levels

A

Szechtman et. al 1998
In this study, animals were given drugs to enhance levels of dopamine, and were then observed to show ritualistic, compulsive behaviors that we tend to stereotype with OCD.

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6
Q

How was the link between low serotonin and OCD discovered?

A

the link was found after observing that antidepressant drugs that enhance serotonin activity (e.g. SSRIs) have been shown to reduce OCD symptoms, whereas antidepressants that do not involve stimulating serotonin do not affect OCD symptoms.

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7
Q

What two brain areas can be used to explain OCD?

A

The Caudate Nucleus (found in the basal ganglia) and The orbitofrontal cortex (found in the frontal lobe)

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8
Q

What is the role of the orbitofrontal cortex?

A

Sends impulses to the thalamus if the person finds something worrying or threatening (which then usually triggers the sympathetic nervous system). Wh

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9
Q

What is the role of the Caudate Nucleus?

A

It normally suppresses impulses from the orbitofrontal cortex.

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10
Q

How can the Caudate nucleus affect OCD?

A

If the caudate nucleus becomes damaged, it will not suppress the “worry” impulses sent by orbitofrontal cortex properly, so fails to suppress unnecessary or irrational threat signals. This causes threat/worry impulses to be relayed back and forth between the orbitofrontal lobe and the thalamus, creating a worry circuit (this can create the feeling during OCD behaviors n which one can not stop the ritual, as the anxiety impulses are being ruminated continuously)

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11
Q

How was the of the involvement of the Orbitofrontal Cortex in OCD discovered?

A

PET scans showed heightened activity in the OFC, when people with OCD were presented with a stressor.

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12
Q

How does the function of the Caudate nucleus involve neurotransmitters?

A

As suggested by Comer 1998, serotonin supports the regular function of the caudate nuclei, so a lack of serotonin could stipulate underactivity of the Caudate Nucleus.

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13
Q

Name one study that shows the links between genetic and abnormal brain structures

A

Menzies et. al 2007

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14
Q

Describe the events in M_____s et. al

A

Menzies— He used MRI scans to gauge what brain regions are most active in a group of OCD sufferers, their immediate family and a control group of unrelated, healthy people. Both the OCD patients and their relatives showed reduced grey matter in the OFC.

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15
Q

How did P__ls and L___man suggests the key genes in OCD patients can relate to other disorders?

A

They believed bearers of this gene often showcased obsessive behavior. Thy suggested other disorders that involved these genes, such as Anorexia Nervosa and Autism.

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16
Q

What is the flow diagram for how the COMT gene can stipulate a symptom of OCD?

A

Low COMT activity ⇾⇾⇾⇾ Dopamine levels are too high ⇾⇾⇾⇾Orbitofrontal Cortex is overactive ⇾⇾⇾⇾ Hypervigilance (Anxiety) ⇾⇾⇾⇾ OBSESSIVE THOUGHTS

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17
Q

What is the flow diagram for how the SERT gene can stipulate a symptom of OCD?

A

SERT activity is too low ⇾⇾⇾⇾ Serotonin levels are too low ⇾⇾⇾⇾ Caudate Nucleus underactive ⇾⇾⇾⇾ cannot regulate “worry” impulses ⇾⇾⇾⇾ COMPULSIVE BEHAVIORS

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18
Q

What does diathesis stress mean?

A

Suggests that disorders are caused by a combination of biological and environmental factors

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19
Q

What does SSRI stand for?

A

Selection Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

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20
Q

What are the three most common SSRIs used in Britain?

A

Fluoxetine (prozac), Sertraline (zoloft), Citralopram

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21
Q

How do SSRIs work?

A

By blocking the re-uptake of serotonin, but does not inhibit any of the other processes. It blocks the re-uptake canals, which leads to a build up of serotonin in the synapses.

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22
Q

What is one positive of the use of SSRIs

A

They are very cheap (only £1.50 per month)

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23
Q

What are 4 negative side effects of SSRIs?

A

Lethargy, reduced mental speed, reduction of physical and sexual arousal and weight gain/increased appetite.

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24
Q

How are SSRIs similar to tricyclics?

A

They also block the re-uptake of serotonin, and have similar effects as SSRIs but are more powerful.

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25
Q

What are the two most common examples of Tricyclics?

A

Amitriptyline (Elavil)

Clomipramine (Anafranil)

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26
Q

How do Tricyclics work?

A

They block reuptake of both serotonin and noradrenaline (works as both the neurotransmitters are in the same family). The build up of serotonin allows better impulse control, while the build up of noradrenaline aids with obsessive thoughts (also helps with concentration issues caused by excess serotonin).

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27
Q

What is one positive of tricyclics?

A

They are more effective than SSRis and can help reduce the concentration side effects that SSRis cause. Therefore, they are often used in more severe cases of OCD.

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28
Q

What is one negative side effect of tricyclics?

A

Tricyclics can also block the reuptake of histamines, making the patient more lethargic, as well as blocking acetylcholine, which could result in dry mouth or constipation.

29
Q

How do postsynaptic potentials affect the charge of the cell body?

A

It changes the charge of the neuron according to whether the post-synaptic potential is excitatory or inhibitory (it becoming positively charged if there is an EPSP and negatively charged if there is an IPSP). They do this by drawing in either negative or positive ions (usually Cl- ions for creating a negative charge due to an EPSP and Na+ and K+ to create a positive charge due to and IPSP).

30
Q

How do Benzodiazepines use ions to reduce anxiety?

A

Benzodiazepines mimics GABA, which binds to receptors that involve chloride channels (that allow a negative charge to be created due to drawing in Cl- ions) This causes an excess of negative ions to flood into the postsynaptic cell, due to the chloride channel now being more open, causing the cell to be less likely to fire and cause an anxious response.

31
Q

What are three types of Benzodiazepines?

A

Alprazolam (Xanax)
Diazepam (Valium)
Lorazepam (Atrian)

32
Q

What is one positive of benzodiazepines?

A

They are extremely fast acting, so can placate a patient in high distress very quickly

33
Q

What is one negative of benzodiazepines?

A

Benzodiazepines can cause high confusion, and cause effects similar to alcohol or marijuana. You also can’t drive when you are taking them.

34
Q

What is one application of statistical infrequency in diagnosing illness?

A

It can be used for identifying learning difficulties by testing if an individual has lower than average IQ.

35
Q

What are two limitations of using deviation from social norms to diagnose mental illness?

A

Can lead to mistakes in what is a social norm, e.g. homosexuality originally being considered a disorder as gay people were a minority

This technique is less useful in multicultural as what is considered “normal” varies in different cultures.

36
Q

What is one application of the “failure to function adequately” technique in diagnosing mental illness?

A

It is the main technique used to define what constitutes a mental disorder in the DSM-V

37
Q

What is one positive of the “failure to function adequately” technique in diagnosing mental illness?

A

It allows patients to show their individual differences and “weird” parts, as long as they still adequately function (can deviate from social norms, as long as it does not affect their daily functions). This reduces stigma and false diagnosis.

38
Q

What is one negative of the “failure to function adequately” technique in diagnosing mental illness?

A

What is “adequate functioning” is subjective. Some people are happiest at a lower-level functioning, and others are just more high-functioning individuals. Furthermore, psychologist will often make the judgement of what is adequate functioning, and psychologists tend to be more high-functioning individuals.

39
Q

Briefly outline the two process model

A

suggests phobias are created through association of fear with a stimulus via classical/operant conditioning. It states that after experiencing an anxiety-inducing event involving the stimulus, the object/stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and causes the same anxiety as was experienced in the event. This is then perpetuated (via operant conditioning) as the avoidance of the stimulus mollifies this anxiety, therefore giving the avoidance via negative reinforcement. (Positive punishment when in contact with the stimulus also contributes to this).

40
Q

What were the experimental design and observational method of Watson and Raynor?

A

It was a contrived laboratory study, using overt participant observation

41
Q

What was the methodology of Watson and Raynor?

A

a fear response was created by striking metal bars(to create noise) behind little Albert’s head, and repeated this with different stimuli, in order for Albert to associate the fear created by the response with each stimulus. The stimuli included things like a white rat, that Albert was not originally scared of.

42
Q

What were the findings of Watson and Raynor?

A

After Albert experienced the conditioning, Albert showed distress at the sight of the rat (and other stimuli). He also showed fear of similar animals, such as white rabbits and the fur on Santa’s coat ( the phobia became applicable to other stimuli)

43
Q

What is one positive of the two process model?

A

The two process model has had beneficial applications The idea of operant conditioning in the formation of phobias helped to create treatment such as systematic desensitisation and flooding.

44
Q

What is one negative of the two process model?

A

The two process model does not explain phobias that are not caused by trauma. Ohman and Seligman discovered that fears and phobias can become apparent without the need for associating via traumatic experience . They suggested that some fears are innate or may be genetically inherited (e.g. snakes and heights). Therefore, these are not learned phobias, and are not a result of classical or operant conditioning.

45
Q

What is one negative of Watson and Raynor relating to issues and debates?

A

It could be argued to be too idiographic.

46
Q

What is flooding?

A

It is a behavioral therapy used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. The patient is immediately exposed to the phobic stimulus, causing extreme anxiety, whilst practicing relaxation techniques. After anxiety increases dramatically, it will eventually reach a climax/plateau and begin to decrease, due to the limited amount of energy that can be used at a time. When the anxiety subsides, the stimulus is still present, so the patient may re-associate the stimulus with relaxation, rather than anxiety.

47
Q

What is counterconditioning?

A

It is is used in flooding and SD (when relaxation is practiced around the stimulus to inhibit the anxiety). According to reciprocal inhibition, anxiety and relaxation can not occur at the same time, they inhibit one another. Therefore, if we feel relaxation around the stimulus, we can not feel anxiety around the stimulus. This is therefore how counterconditioning works.

48
Q

What is systematic desensitisation?

A

Similar treatment to flooding, but with the phobic stimulus being introduced gradually.
The patient experiences several small plateaus rather than one large plateau. It involves first practicing relaxation techniques with a therapist, then establishing a plan for how to gradually introduce the stimulus, then either multiple sessions or one session following this plan while practicing the relaxation techniques whenever in contact with the stimuli.

49
Q

What is one positive of using therapy to treat phobias?

A

It can last the patient their whole life, while drug treatment is always temporary and can have negative side effects.

50
Q

What is one negative of flooding?

A

In flooding, the process can fail and possibly worsen the phobia. If the patient does not experience anxiety resolution, they will not associate the stimulus with relief (which would happen if they plateaued), but will instead associate the extreme anxiety induced with the stimulus.

51
Q

Briefly outline the main aspects of how CBT is used to treat depression

A
  • Changes the negative core belief by rationalising negative perceptions/catastrophizing thoughts
  • It is a talking therapy
  • It has a success rate of 75%
  • The process is collaborative, so requires engagement from both the therapist and the patient.
  • We use behavioral training to help challenge and modify cognitions indirectly by setting behavioral homeworks between therapy sessions.
52
Q

What was the main model in Ellis’ Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy?

A

The D.E.F, model-
D- Disputing- disputing irrational cognitions
E- Effects- Effects of disputing/effective attitudes
F- Feelings- Feelings that result from that process

53
Q

What are the requirements for behavioral homework?

A

behavioral homework is set it should be physically and psychologically rewarding, activating the parts of the brain associated with reward (help low mood).

54
Q

What is one issue with CBT?

A

The effectiveness of CBT could be impacted by depressive realism. Depressive realism refers to the fact (or theory) that those with depression often think more rationally or more realistically than those without depression. This can hinder the effectiveness of CBT, as CBT is based on invalidating irrational beliefs and thought processes, and if the patient has a rational thought process causing them to be depressed, this would not be helpful.

55
Q

What do the three letters in the ABC model stand for?

A

A refers to an activating event
B refers to the belief, which is rational in normal people but is irrational in people with depression
C refers to the consequence- rational beliefs lead to healthy emotions while irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions

56
Q

What is musturbatory thinking?

A

It is when one thinks that certain ideas or assumptions must be true in order for a you to be happy. (i.e. I must do well or I am worthless)

57
Q

What are the four sections in Beck’s triad?

A

Negative view of the self, Negative view of the world, Negative view of the future and these all contribute to negative core beliefs.

58
Q

What does the negative schema theory of depression suggest?

A

Depressed people are said to have adopted a negative schema during childhood which created a negative view of the world.

59
Q

What is an example of cognitive biases?

A

Individuals over-generalising, for instance drawing a sweeping conclusion regarding self worth on the basis of one piece of negative feedback.

60
Q

What were Jahoda’s six principles for an ideal mental health?

A

Having a positive view of yourself (high self‐esteem) with a strong sense of identity
Being capable of personal growth and self‐actualisation
Being independent of others (autonomous) and self‐regulating
Having an accurate view of reality
Being able to integrate and resist stress
Being able to master your environment (love, friendships, work, and leisure time)

61
Q

Outline B_____a and R____thal’s study that suggests that we can learn phobias via SLT

A

A model acted like they were in pain when a buzzer was heard and was witnessed by a group of participants. The participants then winced/showed distress when they heard the buzzer. This shows that phobias can be learned through modelling/SLT.

62
Q

What is one evaluation of the behavioral explanation for phobias?

A

Environmentally reductionist, could be caused by biological factors, such as genetic predispositions to phobias.

63
Q

What is one evaluation of the behavioral explanation for phobias?

A

It ignores cognitive factors and how irrational cognitions can cause phobias, especially social phobias.

64
Q

How effective is SD?

A

75% (McGrath)

65
Q

How can genes stipulate depression and how can this be used to criticise CBT?

A

They can cause a lack of serotonin, which stipulates depression

CBT focuses on cognitions but not biology, so disregards this

66
Q

WHat is the success rate of CBT? (as suggested by Ellis?

A

90% over 27 sessions

67
Q

What effect can we use to contests CBT?

A

The dodo bird effect

68
Q

WHat is one positive of behavioral therapies compared to CBT for phobias?

A

They are much faster and cheaper

69
Q

What is one issue with diagnosing phobias?

A

They may just be a symptom of a different, underlying problem.

Psychology A Level (15 decks)

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