Biopsychology A2 and A1 Flashcards
How do animal behaviors relate to the complexity of their brain structures?
The more complex and adaptive an animal’s behaviors are, the more complex the brain structures.
What two important structures does the inferior lobe involve?
The inferior lobe has the pituitary gland inside it and the pituitary gland outside it.
What does the olfactory lobe control?
It controls sense of smell. Animals with a hypersensitive perception of smell like sharks) will have a very large olfactory lobe.
Why did dogs develop larger cerebral hemispheres than sheep?
As the cerebral hemispheres contain the structures related to sight and spatial awareness, so dogs require a larger cerebrum, as they need better vision and spatial awareness to hunt.
What system in the brain is associated with emotion?
The Limbic System.
Who was F___z g__l? What did he theorize about skull shape and personality traits?
Franz Gall— Founded Phenology in 1796. He divided the brain into 27 theoretical “organs”, of which we shared 19 with other animals (think of 2319!! from monsters inc, but 27 as that’s …..the right number). He suggested that personality traits could be felt as bumps on the skull above those corresponding brain areas.
Who was M___e-J__n-P____e Fl__r_ns?
He specialised in animal lesion studies (dissecting brains). He found, through cutting the brains of pigeons and rabbits, that different brain areas control different major functions.
What does localised function mean?
The theorising of how specific areas of the brain are associated with specific cognitive processes.
What is the function of the motor cortex? Whereabouts in the brain is it located?
It is responsible for the generation of voluntary motor movements, specifically conscious physical movements It is located in the cerebrum, just above the stomatosensory cortex
What is the function of the visual cortex? Whereabouts in the brain is it located?
It receives and relays visual signals like colour and movement from the optic nerve, that receives the signals from the retina, giving us visual perception. It is found at the back of the brain, within the occipital lobe.
What is the function of Broca’s Area? Whereabouts in the brain is it located?
It is one of the centres responsible for language production. It combines signals from multiple other regions of the brain to create speech. It is located in the LEFT cerebral hemisphere
What is the function of Wernicke’s Area? Whereabouts in the brain is it located?
The centre within the brain responsible for understanding language. It allows us to interpret and progress physical and verbal communication. It is also found only in the left cerebral hemisphere.
What is the function of the stomatosensory cortex? Whereabouts in the brain is it located?
It synthesizes information from peripheral neurons to create physical sensations. It is located just below the motor cortex
What is the function of the pineal gland? Whereabouts in the brain is it located?
It produces and regulates the release of melatonin, which could suggest its importance to sleeping patterns. It is pea-sized and located in a ventricle between the two cerebral hemispheres.
What is the Dorsal Stream?
It is part of the two-stream explanation for visual processing and hearing. It suggests the “stream” of neurotransmitters from the primary visual cortex to the occipital lobe and finally to the frontal lobe. (Through the structures near the top of the brain). It theoretically dictates location, movement and spatial reactions).
What is the Ventral Stream?
It is part of the two-stream explanation for visual processing and hearing. it’s pathway stretches from the primary visual cortex to the temporal lobe (through the structures more oriented towards the bottom of the brain). It helps process form, colour, size, texture and other pictorial details.
What are the ventricles?
Small openings in the brain that allow for the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
What is the corpus callosum?
The connective tissue that joins the two cerebral hemispheres. It is imperative for the interaction between sight and speech.
What is one evaluation supporting localised function involving research support?
The evidence from many case studies supports localised function, for example split brain lasseration and stroke sufferers with damaged Broca’s area being unable to speak coherently.
What is one evaluation supporting localised function involving neurology?
EVidence of localised areas for specific functions have been shown by using fMRI scans to track brain activity in diffrent areas when doing specific tasks.
What is one evaluation supporting localised function involving evolutionary benefit?
These localised can help us explain how we have evolved and are therefore more equipped with these specific localised areas (e.g. larger temporal lobes than monkeys to allow for rational thinking and co-operation)
What is one evaluation criticising localised function that regards gender difference?
There are gender differences in neural structures, with many of the earlier case studies researching localised function being exclusively tested on men (reduces internal validity)
What is one evaluation criticising localised function that regarding age difference?
DIfferent age brains also have different neural structure. When we are young, for instance, we have a dense and very branched network of axons, especially when we are toddlers, but these then become denser and more specialised, though the axons/neuron connections become stronger.
What is one evaluation criticising localised function that regards neuroplasticity/reductionism?
Due to neuroplasticity, the brain structures can change, so localisation should usually be considered with uncertainty.
What is the mnemonic that you use to remember the 7 principles of evaluation in biopsychology?
RED PAGE
What does RED PAGE stand for?
R- Reductionist E-Evolutionary Benefits D- Determinism P- Practical Applications A- Age differences G- Gender Differences E- External Validity/Research Support
What does contralateral organisation mean?
Functional areas of the brain that are localised in both hemispheres will always connect to the opposite side of the body.
How come the case studies involving split-brain patients came about?
Lateralisation of the corpus callosum was used to attempt to treat “incurable” epilepsy that was unresponsive to drug treatment. This was an attempt to halt electrical impulses between the two hemispheres that could have caused seizures. Nowadays, the operation is still used, but only a small lesion is made.
What (very briefly) was the method of S____y and G_________’s study?
Sperry and Gazzaniga– They studied split-brain patients by sending visual information to one hemisphere at a time. The patients were either asked to give a response using their right arm, left arm or verbally.
What were the findings of S____y and G_________’s study?
Sperry and Gazzaniga - Information can only be processed in the sphere it is exposed to - If the information was shown to the left field, meaning the information would be processed in the right hemisphere, they would not be able to verbally confirm seeing it, as there is no language centre in the right hemisphere. - If a dog was shown in the left field/eye, only the right hemisphere would see the dog and vice versa.
What were the two IVs and two DVs in S____y and G_________’s?
Sperry and Gazzaniga IV1- Stimulus presented to right hand side IV2- Stimulus presented to left hand side DV1- Accuracy reacting to stimulus shown in gesticulation DV2- Accuracy reacting to stimulus shown verbally
What are three factors of Sperry and G’s study that could suggest a lack of population/external validity?
- Sperry only studied right-handed patients, and patients having different dominant hands can suggest that different cerebral hemispheres are more dominant in dictating their function. - Brain structures can change over time due to neuroplasticity - Age can affect brain structure, and sperry only studied adults, as older individuals tend to have less lateralised/ more closely knitted hemispheres
Was Sperry and G’s study cost beneficial?
Though some argued that it could be considered unethical (partly due to lack of confidentiality for brain damaged individuals who didn’t know they had these disabilities- meaning these studies actually revealed the extent of the effect the lateralisation had caused for them. However, it was a natural study, which benefited our understanding of epilepsy, which could suggest his contributions outweigh the controversy/ethical issues proposed.
When do new neuronal connections form?
When we experience new things. Hence why so many new neuronal connections are formed during childhood.
How are axons and the myelin sheath related to us becoming more functional as we grow up?
New axons form from the myelin sheath. As we experience more when growing up, we at first create more axon connections, but our axon connections then tend to become thicker and fewer. This is because the connections related to functions we repeatedly use and repeat develop layers and layers of axons around them, while other less used axons/neural pathways are used less, so the axon branches aren’s as heavily built up.This helps us get better at these specific functions.
At what age does our neuronal growth peak?
5-6
How does the theory of neuronal growth relate to critial period?
The evidence that neuronal growth peaks at ages 5-6 could support the critical period suggested in Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation/monotropy, and help him extend the critical theory from 6 months. It supports the idea that this period is very important for development and can be integral in determining our later emotional stability/dependency, due to the changing structures of our brain possibly involving the structures localised for emotion.
What are the two types of plasticity?
Structural Plasticity- When the brain structure changes due to growth Functional Plasticity- When localised functions move from a damaged to an undamaged region after the area originally controlling the function being damaged.
What is pruning?
The process in which axons that aren’t used weaken and are eventually lost.
What does NGF do?
NGF, standing for Neural Growth Factor encourages the growth of new neurons.
How are neurotrophins used in synaptic growth?
They sustain and encourage axon sprouting.
How is pruning different in an individual with multiple sclerosis?
The process in which axons are weakened and eventually lost occurs, but the lack of myelin sheath means that these axons are not replaced.
How can FMRIs be used to help us study the brain?
The FMRI scan can be used to measure when specific brain areas are stimulated, by detecting blood flow to that area. This suggests that when performing specific tasks, certain neurons/areas related to that function will require more energy, so therefore blood will go to the neuron associated with the action.
How do fMRIs use magnets?
Deoxygenated haemoglobin (haemoglobin in respiring tissues) has a different magnetic field to oxygenated blood. Therefore, when a different magnetic field is shown around a specific neuronal area when an action is occurring, we can infer that the blood/oxygen is mostly being concentrated towards that area.
What is the temporal resolution of FMRI scans?
The Image that is shown shows the change in magnetic 1-4 seconds after the activity is shown.
What is the spatial resolution of FMRI scans?
1-2 millimetres
What are EEG machines?
EEG machines measures activity in the brain using adhesive stickers on the scalp. It detects the different waves of activity in consciousness (based off readings of the amplitude and frequency etc).
What are the different waves of activity in consciousness (in the three following orders) - Highest frequency to lowest frequency - Highest amplitude to lowest amplitude - Level of alertness (most alert first) that it is related to
Gamma Rays, Beta Waves, Alpha Waves, Theta Waves, Delta Waves Delta Waves, Theta Waves, Alpha Waves Beta Waves, Gamma Waves Gamma Rays (Problem solving and learning), Beta Waves (awake and aroused) , Alpha Waves (awake and relaxed), Theta Waves (light sleep/deep meditation), Delta Waves (deep sleep)
How can we use EEGs to study the brain in Event-Related Potentials?
A Patient will repeat an action many times, and the EEGs will record the activity waves (via detecting where here is the highest frequency/amplitude). We then record the varying activity of the brain at bassline readings (without the stimulating activity). We can then recognise the change in activity in any specific areas when the activity is completed.
What is one drawback of using ERPS and EEGS to study the brain?
The change in activity and activity being performed are not necessarily cause and effect variables, the can be effected by many other things. ERPs give correlational data only, making them easily determinist.
What is one practical drawback of using ERPS and EEGS to study the brain?
The activity must be repeated a very large number of times to ensure there are no anomolous readings in the activity, as well as having to do the bassline activity reading, so this form of study can be very time consuming and expensive (in some cases could make us question whether it is cost benificial)
What is one good practical application of ERPs, that could help us argue that it IS cost effective?
ERPs have been used to detect sleep disorders, epilepsy and alzheimers.
What is the latency of a sensory ERP
within 100 milliseconds (i.e. an ERP response is measured within 100 milliseconds of the stimulation/activity)
What is the latency of a cognitive ERP
The EEG will show response to the stimulus AFTER 100 milliseconds.
What is one strength EEGs have over fMRIs
FMRIs have a much slower temporal resolution (they can not scan activity as quickly)
What are three examples of circadian rhythms that affect our sleep cycle?
How our body clock reacts to light, body temperature and blood pressure.
What is the most important brain area in the process of light waking us up?
The suprachiosmotic nucleus
What is the chain of events when we see blue light in the morning?
LIght is percieved by the photoreceptor cells in the retiana, this is then processed along the optic nerve, which is then taken to the hypothalamous, where the light intensity/colour is processed by the suprachiasmatic nucleus. This blue, bright light then triggers the pituitary gland, which releases cortisol, resulting in arousal and us becoming “awake”.
What is the chain of events when we see red light at night time?
LIght is percieved by the photoreceptor cells in the retiana, this is then processed along the optic nerve, which is then taken to the hypothalamous, where the light intensity/colour is processed by the suprachiasmatic nucleus. The faint red light triggers the pineal gland, resulting in melatonin release, resulting in us being sent to sleep.
What does the lateral geniculative nucleus do?
It desides whether images are horizontal or verticle before it reaches the occipital lobe, so gives us spatial awareness and the ability to orient ourselves.
How does our cycle of body temperature relate to our sleep-wake cycle?
Core body temperature is one of the best indicators of circadian rhythm, It is at it’s lowest at about 4:30 am and at it’s highest at about 6pm. During the normal circadian rhythm, sleep occurs when the body temperature begins to drop and body temperature begins to rise during the last hours of sleep, promoting a feeling of alertness.
How does our cycle of blood pressure relate to our sleep-wake cycle?
We have our highest blood pressure usually at 6:00pm, after which our blood pressure gradually decreases and is very low as we sleep. However, when we wake up, usually around 6:30, we have our sharpest blood pressure surge, causing us to wake up and become more alert.
How did Hughes research support the idea of light effecting our circadian rhythms?
In 1973, Hughes tested the circadian rhythms of the British antarctic station. Hughes found that they had changed cycles of cortisol release, due to them being exposed to near constant darkness in the winter months, with their peak cortisol being at noon rather than at sunrise.
What is the scientific name for social and external cues that affect our circadian rhythms?
exogenous zietgabers- these are often just our rhythms and daily routines (i.e. drinking a cup of tea before bed)
How can circadian rhythms be applied to psychopathology?
People with ASD often have trouble with melatonin production and regulating sleep. Therefore, we can try and manipulate their circadian rhythms using lights (commonly called wake-up lights) that emulate the blue light of day or red light of night, and can therefore regulate their hormones enough to help them sleep.
How have circadian rhythms been applied to pharmacology?
They have been used to develop chronotherapeutics. These are drugs that have a coating that takes a specific amount of time to dissolve, so the drug will be administered at a specific time relating to circadian rhythms. (For example, if a drug needs to be administered when blood pressure is at it’s lowest, the pill would be taken before bed and dissolve to be released whilst the person is asleep).
How have circadian rhythms been benificially applied to healthcare?
It has lead to restrictions on the number of night shifts healthcare workers can do, due to the risks circadian rhythms have revealed to be associated with prolongued sleep disruption.
What are 5 side effects of prolongued sleep disruption?
Reduced Concentration, Heart Attack, Depression, depression, stroke, and premature aging due to oxidative stress (all can be related to an excess/extended exposure to cortisol)
How can cortisol cause heart attacks?
Cortisol can cause heart attacks by a process called atheroschlerosis. This is when cortisol causes someone to have constant high blood pressure, this creates atheroschlerotic scabs in the heart/veins, which can break off and cause sudden blockages, resulting in heart attack.
What is one drawback of the theory of circadian rhythms (relating to the “red” of “red page”
The idea of circadian rhythms is hard to generalise to many people, as it ignores individual differences. Researchers, such as Czeicher et.al. have found that circadian cycles can vary from 13-65 hours. This suggests circadian rhythms are machine/biologically reductionist.
What did Duffy et. Al. discover relating to circadian rhythms?
Duffy suggested that individuals have different circadian rhythms, which helps us to understand why some of us “early larks” prefer to rise and go to bed early, and others prefer to rise and go to sleep later.
What is an ultradian rhythm?
Cycles that last less than 24 hours, such as the cycle of sleep stages that occur throughout the night.
what is an Infradian rhythm?
Rhythms that have a duration of over 24 hours, can be weekly, monthly or annually.
What are the five stages of sleep?
- Stage 1- light sleep with slowed muscular activity - Stage 2- breathing pattern, body temperature and heart rate slows -Stage 3- Deep sleep begins as the brain generates delta waves. -Stage 4- Very deep sleep- delta waves- limited muscle movement Stage 5- REM sleep- rapid+shallow breathing with dreams.
How many of the five stages of sleep are Non Rapid Eye Movement?
4 stages, Non Rapid Eye Movement Takes up 75% of our sleep.
What percentage of the 90 minute sleep cycle is stage 1?
4-5%
What is “N” labelling?
The occipital lobe
What is “C” labelling?
The corpus callosum
What is D labelling?
The prefrontal cortex
What is F labelling?
The hypothalamus
What region could 8 be labelling?
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
What is 7 labelling?
The motor cortex
What is 9 labelling?
The stomatosensory cortex
What is the area closer to the front of the brain?
The Broca’s area
What is th area further away from the front of the brain?
Wernicke’s area
What type of neuron is this? What indicates this?
A sensory neuron.
The dendrites are not coming from the cell body
What type of neuron is this?
How can we tell?
A relay neuron
As the axon looks branched
What is this type of neuron?
What indicates this?
Motor neuron
Large amount of dendrites
