Research Methods

Question 1

What is an independent variable?

Answer 1

• the variable that the researcher manipulates to determine its effect on the dependent variable
• it can be divided into levels (experimental conditions)

Question 2

What is a control condition?

Answer 2

• provides a standard against which the experimental conditions can be compared (IV not manipulated at all)

Question 3

What is the dependent variable?

Answer 3

• the variable that is being measured

Question 4

What are extraneous variables?

Answer 4

• they are variables other than the IV that could affect the DV
• e.g. sleep, weather, personal life events

Question 5

What are confounding variables?

Answer 5

• they are variables other than the IV that have affected the DV
• e.g. light, noise

Question 6

What is operationalisation?

Answer 6

• where the variables are defined and stated how it will be measured
• e.g. “aggression” = it means how angry/irritated an individual is and this can be measured by displays of verbal or physical acts of violence in a 10 min period”

Question 7

What are the four types of experiments?

Answer 7

• laboratory:
  
  • controlled environment (eliminates any EV)
  • pits are randomly allocated to a condition
  • conducted in an artificial setting
• field:
  
  • carried out in real world/natural setting
  • IV is still manipulated or controlled by researcher
  • e.g. observing people in the streets
• natural:
  
  • researcher takes advantage of naturally occurring IV to see its effect on DV
  • variables are not directly manipulated by the experimenter
  • the experimenter finds ppts who already meet the conditions of the study
• quasi:
  
  • contains naturally occurring IV
  • the IV is naturally occurring difference between people (gender, age)
  • usually takes place in laboratory setting

Question 8

What are the strengths/weaknesses of laboratory experiments?

Answer 8

• strengths:
• high level of control:
  
  • easy to control for any extraneous variables (prevents them from becoming confounding variables)
• researcher can easily establish the cause and effect of IV by directly manipulating them
• repeatable:
  
  • they can be easily repeated to check for the reproducibility
  • similar findings show that the results are reliable
• weaknesses:
• demand characteristics:
  
  • ppts may guess the aim of the experiment
  • some may behave in a more positive light (social desirability bias)
• high level of control may cause lack of mundane realism:
  
  • so the study does not have ecological validity

Question 9

What are the strengths/weaknesses of field experiments?

Answer 9

• strengths:
• more mundane realism than in a lab:
  
  • there is more ecological validity and can reflect real life better
• clear cause and effect:
  
  • researcher is able to directly manipulate IV
• less chance of demand characteristics:
  
  • ppts may not be aware that they are taking part in research (natural behaviour)
• weaknesses:
• less control over extraneous variables:
  
  • effect on DV may not be caused by IV (research is not valid)
• less control over sample:
  
  • sample may not be representative of the target population
• difficult to replicate (may be unreliable compared to lab experiments)

Question 10

What are the strengths/weaknesses of natural experiments?

Answer 10

• strengths:
• high level of mundane realism and ecological validity
• useful for impossible/unethical variables:
  
  • e.g. psychologists may study a group of naturally stressed men aged 60-65 with high levels of stress/cholesterol
• weaknesses:
• low control over extraneous variables compared to a lab experiment
• difficult to replicate:
  
  • often unreliable and if repeated it is less likely same results will be gained
• difficult to determine cause and effect due to low levels of control

Question 11

What are the strengths/weaknesses of quasi experiments?

Answer 11

• strengths:
• high level of control:
  
  • effects of EV are minimised
• replication is very likely so it is easy to replicate to test reliability of findings
• weaknesses:
• lack of ecological validity due to the artificial setting
• demand characteristics:
  
  • ppts may either accurately or inaccurately guess the aim of the experiment
  • this can make the results invalid

Question 12

What are the six types of observation?

Answer 12

• non-participant:
  
  • when researcher does not get directly involved with the interactions of the ppts
• participant:
  
  • when researcher is directly involved with the ppts and will engage in the activities that they are doing
• covert:
  
  • psychologist goes undercover and does not reveal their true identity
  • they group do not know that they are being observed
• overt:
  
  • psychologist reveals their true identity and states that they are observing the group
• naturalistic:
  - researcher observes ppts in their own natural environment and there is no deliberate manipulation
• controlled:
  
  • researcher observes ppts in controlled environment and manipulates IV

Question 13

What are the strengths/weaknesses of non-participant observation?

Answer 13

• strengths:
  
  • can study situation in natural situation without altering any conditions
  • good quality notes can be made
• weaknesses:
  
  • may lack validity as they do not have a deeper understanding of the observed characteristics of the ppts

Question 14

What are the strengths/weaknesses of participant observation?

Answer 14

• strengths:
  
  • less likely to be identified by the ppts
  • more in depth understanding of the ppts
• weaknesses:
  
  • their presence may lead to biased/altered behaviour from the ppts (loss of objectivity)

Question 15

What are the strengths/weaknesses of covert observation?

Answer 15

• strengths:
  
  • less demand characteristics (ppts do not know they are being observed)
• weaknesses:
  
  • deception may be occurring (unethical as the ppts are unaware of the study taking place)

Question 16

What are the strengths/weaknesses of overt observation?

Answer 16

• strengths:
  
  • researcher can freely make notes
  • ethical as ppts are able to give consent
• weaknesses:
  
  • ppts may show demand characteristics (less valid)

Question 17

What are the strengths/weaknesses of naturalistic observation?

Answer 17

• strengths:
  
  • ppts are unaware that they are being observed (more likely to act naturally)
  • high mundane realism (reflects everyday behaviour)
• weaknesses:
  
  • no control over extraneous variables (can make results invalid)
  • lack of control also means that cause and effect cannot be established

Question 18

What are the strengths/weaknesses of controlled observation?

Answer 18

• strengths:
  
  • highly controlled environment so cause and effect is clear
  • extraneous variables can be controlled making results more valid
• weaknesses:
  
  • low levels of mundane realism due to the high levels of control (lacks ecological validity)
  • observer effects can occur as ppts know they are being observed

Question 19

What is observer bias?

Answer 19

• if the observer is aware of the aim of the study they may only focus on behaviours that they think meets their aims/hypothesis
• so the data may be inaccurate and subjective

Question 20

What are the three behavioural design concepts?

Answer 20

• behavioural categories:
  
  • specific types of behaviour that are being looked for in an observation
• event sampling:
  
  • observer decides in advance what types of behaviour they are interested in and records allocation occurrences
  • all other behaviour is ignored
• time-interval sampling:
  
  • observer decides in advance that the observation will only take place during specified time periods
  • they only record the occurrence of specified behaviour during that period

Question 21

What is a pilot study (+ strengths/weaknesses)?

Answer 21

• a preliminary small scale investigation of the procedures that will be used in the main study
• small sample is selected to carry out a trial run of the experiment
• strengths:
• can save time and money by fixing any flaws beforehand
• weaknesses:
• may not accurately reflect the main study as few ppts are not representative of the main sample

Question 22

What are the two types of self-report techniques?

Answer 22

• interviews
• questionnaires

Question 23

What are the types of interviews?

Answer 23

• structured:
  
  • all ppts asked the same questions in the same order
  • provides quantitative data (counted/expressed numerically)
  • closed questions
• unstructured:
  
  • informal in-depth conversational exchange between the interviewer and interviewee
  • questions are not pre-planned (but are related to what the interviewer wants to discuss)
  • provides qualitative data (uses words to describe what people think/feel
  • open questions
• semi-structured:
  
  • mixture of structured and unstructured techniques (qualitative + quantitative data)
  • closed and open questions
  • some pre-planned questions which are followed by things interviewer wants to discuss

Question 24

What are the strengths/weaknesses of a structured interview?

Answer 24

• strengths:
• misunderstandings can be clarified
• quicker than structured interviews (less time consuming)
• weaknesses:
• interviewer effects may occur:
  
  • interviewer may affect respondent’s answers (unintentionally)
• lacks qualitative and in depth data:
  
  • answers are restrictive and factual (lack meaning/depth)

Question 25

What are the strengths/weaknesses of an unstructured interview?

Answer 25

• strengths:
• useful with investigating sensitive/controversial topics:
  
  • allows for probing of information to gain understanding of topic being investigated
• weaknesses:
• risk of social desirability bias (invalid/inaccurate results)
• interviewers need to be well-trained to gain relevant data:
  
  • time consuming and expensive to ensure correct training is carried out

Question 26

What are the strengths/weaknesses of a semi-structured interview

Answer 26

• strengths:
  
  • offers some flexibility unlike structured interviews (allows for in depth answers)
  • asking set questions can also allow for easy comparison between ppts
• weaknesses:
  
  • can be quite time-consuming
  • high risk of subjectivity as researcher may ask leading questions

Question 27

What should you consider when designing questionnaires?

Answer 27

• type of data:
  
  • closed (quantitative) or open (qualitative)
• ambiguity
• double barrelled questions
• leading questions
• complexity

Question 28

What are the three types of correlations?

Answer 28

• positive:
  
  • as one variable increases the other variable also increases
• negative:
  
  • as one variable increases the other decreases
• no correlation:
  
  • no relationship between the variables

Question 29

How are correlation strengths measured?

Answer 29

• between -1 and +1
• this is known as the correlation coefficient

Question 30

What graph is used for correlations?

Answer 30

• scattergraphs/grams

Question 31

What are the strengths/weaknesses of correlations?

Answer 31

• strengths:
• allows psychologists to establish the strength of a relationship between two variables

Question 32

What steps are used when conducting research?

Answer 32

• aim:
  
  • deciding an aim (precise statement about purpose of study)
• operationalisation:
  
  • decide IV and DV
• hypotheses:
  
  • a precise, testable statement about the expected outcome of an investigation
  • decide on a hypothesis and operationalise it
  • e.g. eating 250g of chocolate will mean that ppts are significantly more likely to score between 7-10 on a mood scale from 1-10 than if they have nit consumed chocolate

Question 33

What are the two types of hypotheses?

Answer 33

• null hypothesis:
  
  • states that the IV will have no effect on the DV
• alternative/experimental hypothesis:
  
  • predicts that IV will have an effect on the DV
  • non-directional (two tailed) = does not state direction of the predicted differences between conditions
  • directional (one tailed) = states the direction of the predicted difference between conditions