Approaches - Wundt/Pavlov/Skinner/Bandura

Question 1

What is psychology?

Answer 1

• the scientific study of the human mind and its functions; especially affecting behaviour in a given context

Question 2

What is science?

Answer 2

• a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation

Question 3

Who is Wilhelm Wundt?

Answer 3

• known as the “father of psychology”
• opened the first experiments, psychological laboratory in Germany (helped shape psych as a science)
  
  • aided the scientific study of psychological inquiry using controlled conditions that help to replicate results

Question 4

What is introspection?

Answer 4

• a way of studying internal mental events
• the first systematic and experimental attempt to study the mind/mental processes by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of reflections, thoughts, images and sensations

Question 5

How did Wundt use introspection?

Answer 5

• wanted to focus on perception and structuralism (theory of consciousness)
• Wundt used scientific methods to investigate introspection (paved the way for psych to be seen as a science/helped develop cognitive psychology)
  
  • introspection was recorded under controlled conditions
  • ppts focused on present experiences
  • involves person saying everything that is going through their mind whilst doing an activity

Question 6

What are the strengths of introspection and the emergence of psychology as a science?

Answer 6

• helped to develop other approaches:
  
  • e.g. behaviourism, cognitive approach
  • has formed the basis of other models
• extremely scientific:
  
  • shares the same qualities as subjects like chemistry, biology, and physics
  • high control of variables as all these subjects (including psych study behaviour in a lab setting)
• able to establish what causes behaviour:
  
  • can be used to predict future behaviour which is useful in psychology
  • e.g. high dopamine levels can cause OCD (ensure the dopamine levels are regulated)
• still used today in areas of therapy:
  
  • can be used in cognitive therapy to alter patient’s negative thinking
  • introspection can still be applied to contemporary therapy in modern society
• Wundt supports idea of reductionism:
  
  • believed that consciousness can be broken down to its basic elements without sacrificing its properties as a whole
  • studied internal mental processes by deconstructing them down into measurable units (perception, senses, experiences)

Question 7

What are the weaknesses of introspection and the emergence of psychology as a science?

Answer 7

• Watson (1913) criticised this idea:
  
  • this produces subjective data which can vary from one individual to the next (not objective or reliable)
• not scientific/accurate:
  
  • Wilson claimed that psychologists have little knowledge about some behaviours/attitudes that may exist outside of conscious awareness (e.g. racism)
• fails to explain how the mind works:
  
  • psychologists cannot see how thoughts are generated and so introspection cannot be properly observed

Question 8

What is the behavioural approach?

Answer 8

• a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observed in terms of learning

Question 9

What are the assumptions of the behavioural approach?

Answer 9

• all behaviour is learnt and involves the same processes for animals and humans (classical/operant)
• behaviourism maintains more control and objectivity within research/relies on lab experiments

Question 10

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 10

• learning by association
• NS is repeatedly paired with an UCS
• the NS then produces the same response that is produced by the UCR alone

Question 11

What is Pavlov’s (1904) study?

Answer 11

• dogs conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell
  
  • bell sound is repeatedly presented with food
• before conditioning:
  
  • the food (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) of the dog salivating
  • a bell (NS) is rung alone (no food) = no response
• during conditioning:
  
  • the food is then repeatedly paired with the bell (UCS + NS) to produce salivation (UCR)
• after conditioning:
  
  • when bell is presented alone (CS), the dog will begin to salivate (CR)
  • ** learning has taken place and an association has been established **

Question 12

What are the principles of classical conditioning (Pavlov’s research)?

Answer 12

• generalisation:
  
  • stimuli similar to the original CS (bell) will cause the CR (salivation)
• discrimination:
  
  • stimuli similar to the CS (bell) will not produce the CR (salivation)
  • the individual is able to differentiate between the similar stimuli
• extinction:
  
  • the CR (salivation) will not be produced because of the bell sound
  • this is because the CS (bell) is presented without the UCS (food)

Question 13

What are the strengths of classical conditioning?

Answer 13

• research evidence:
  
  • Pavlov’s study (dogs)
  • Little Albert study (by Watson and Rayner)
  • ** however, these are lab experiments and can lack ecological validity **
• model can be easily tested/observed:
  
  • the behavioural model relies on observing behaviour that can be directly seen/measured in a highly controlled setting
  • aids objectivity and replication
• helped to develop treatments of psychological disorders:
  
  • it has helped to form treatments like flooding and systematic desensitisation (based on classical conditioning/association)

Question 14

What are the weaknesses of classical conditioning?

Answer 14

• limited explanation:
  
  • can only explain how learning occurs in animals and young children (does not explain how adults learn new behaviours)
• Menzies criticises the behavioural model:
  
  • he found that only 2% of his sample of hydrophobic people had a negative experience with water
  • 98% of the sample did not learn to be frightened of water
• views animals/humans as passive recipients:
  
  • believes that they have “machine like” responses to stimuli in the environment
  • this minimises their free will
• criticised by biological approach:
  
  • this model ignores factors like genes, hormones, evolution and neural mechanisms
  • there is strong research evidence that shows schizophrenia is determined by genes (implies that it is unlikely that someone would learn to be schizophrenic)
• deterministic model:
  
  • ignores the role of free will in people’s behavioural responses
  • classical conditioning anticipates an individual will respond to a CS with no variation
  • people do have control over how they may respond to an association between two stimuli
  • incomplete/inconsistent model

Question 15

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 15

• a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by consequences
• punishment, positive/negative reinforcement

Question 16

What is positive/negative reinforcement and punishment?

Answer 16

• positive:
  
  • receiving something positive when completing a behaviour
  • e.g. getting a sticker for competing HW
• negative:
  
  • competing a behaviour in order to avoid something unpleasure (continues in the future)
  • e.g. completing HW to avoid getting a detention
• punishment:
  
  • an unpleasant consequence caused by completing a certain behaviour
  • e.g. teacher shouts at you for not completing HW (solution is negative reinforcement to avoid this)

Question 17

What is Skinner’s (1953) study?

Answer 17

• used “the Skinner Box” to conduct research on pigeons/rats
  
  • one hungry rat would accidentally press the lever and be rewarded by a food pellet (positive reinforcement)
  • one rat would press the lever to avoid electric shock from the floor (negative reinforcement)
• extinction:
  
  • rat presses lever but no longer receives a reward
  • so it then stops pressing the lever
• spontaneous recovery:
  
  • (following extinction) if the rat does receive a food pellet after pressing lever, it will “spontaneously recover” what it had previously learnt
• schedules of reinforcement: (different methods of reinforcement)
  
  • continuous reinforcement = every time rat presses the lever, it receives a food pellet
  • fixed interval = rat presses lever and only receives food pellet during fixed time only
  • fixed ratio = rat must press the lever a fixed no. of times to receive a food pellet

Question 18

What are the strengths of operant conditioning?

Answer 18

• research evidence:
  
  • Paul and Lentz used token economy (rewarding appropriate behaviour) to treat schizophrenic patients and found that their behaviour had improved
• Skinner research:
  
  • highly controlled conditions that helps to establish a clear cause and effect
• nurture side of nature/nurture debate:
  
  • states learning occurs due to environmental factors and external stimuli
  • so manipulating factors in environment can effect learning and behaviour

Question 19

What are the weaknesses of operant conditioning?

Answer 19

• Skinner Box criticised:
  
  • he ignores the concept of free will
  • suggests that past experiences involving operant conditioning will affect future behaviour
  • deterministic view of behaviour
• ethical issues of Skinner Box:
  
  • animals were placed in stressful situations which can affect their psychological and physical health
  • there is also a problem with generalising the results rats/pigeons to humans (may not be applicable)
• rooted in behaviourist approach and ignores biological approach:
  
  • bio approach states that behaviour cannot be learnt and that it is in fact heavily influenced by genetics, hormones, and neural mechanisms
  • other approaches in psychology must also be considered when examining influences upon behaviour

Question 20

What is social learning theory?

Answer 20

• where new patterns of behaviour can be acquired/learnt by observing the behaviour of others
• behaviour is learnt from the environment and also considers cognitive processes too

Question 21

What are the key points of the social learning theory?

Answer 21

• modelling:
  
  • requires person to model/carry out behaviour that the observer can learn
  • this can be live, symbolic and can be learned by imitation
• imitation:
  
  • children learn behaviours via imitation that are modelled by significant others
  • this process tends to be more rapid than classical/operant conditioning
  • characteristics
  • observers ability to perform the behaviour
  • observed consequence of behaviour
• identification:
  
  • extent to which the observer relates to the model and feels that they could experience the same outcomes as the model (same sex, age)
• vicarious reinforcement:
  
  • those who observed (aggressive) behaviour being rewarded are more likely to imitate the (aggressive) behaviour than those who observed the model being punished for it
  • this shows that individuals do not need to directly experience rewards/punishment to learn new behaviours
• mediational processes:
  
  • attention = notice behaviour of model
  • retention = remember model’s behvaiour
  • motor reproduction = be able to perform model’s behaviour
  • motivation = willing to perform the behaviour in light of rewards

Question 22

What are the strengths of social learning theory?

Answer 22

• great understanding of criminal behaviour:
  
  • Akers (1998) = found that criminals engage in more criminal activities when exposed to a model that they can highly identify with
• more effective with similar model:
  
  • makes it easier for observer to visualise themselves in the place of the model (same experience)
  • Fox (2009) = when observer played computer game with similar looking model, they were more likely to engage in the same behaviours as the model
• comprehensive view of human learning:
  
  • social learning theory recognised the importance of both behavioural and cognitive factors

Question 23

What are the weaknesses of social learning theory?

Answer 23

• does not take into account cause and effect:
  
  • research has found that increased associations with peers can increase the likelihood of delinquent behaviour
  • however, other factors including poor and deviant attitudes can influence this
• ignores other potential factors affecting behaviour:
  
  • ignores the role of biology/genetics which can cause people to behave in certain ways
  • e.g. Bandura found that boys were more aggressive than girls regardless of the experimental situation
• sees behaviour as being determined by the environment (environmental determinism):
  
  • does not take into account that genetics/innate behaviour can play a huge factor in determining human behaviour

Question 24

What is Bandura’s (1961) study?

Answer 24

• 36 male and 36 female children (37-69 months of age)
  
  • observed either aggressive/non-aggressive female/male model interacting with a bobo doll
  • one condition = aggressive behaviour towards bobo doll (children made to feel frustrated, not allowed to play with the toys given)
• children were taken into the room one by one and were observed for 20 mins
  
  • those who observed the aggressive model reproduced the same aggressive behaviour
  • children who observed the non-aggressive model displayed no aggression
  • 33% = observed/heard verbal aggression, repeated what they had seen and heard
  • 0% of verbal aggression = children in non aggressive group
• boys were more aggressive than girls
• aggression was the greatest when the model was the same gender as the observer

Question 25

What are the strengths of Bandura’s social learning experiment?

Answer 25

- lab study: - study was conducted in highly controlled conditions to ensure that the IV does in fact have an effect on the DV - increases its reliability and the results are likely to be replicated - good evidence to support social learning theory: - provides good evidence to support the idea that SLT is a powerful way for children to learn new behaviours - implies that we should be very aware of the role of media and how it can affect young children (easily influenced)

Question 26

What are the weaknesses of Bandura’s social learning of experiment?

Answer 26

- conducted in highly controlled setting: - results obtained may not be generalised to the wider population due to the lack of ecological validity - observational research may have caused demand characteristics to take place (giving invalid results) - use of bobo doll has been criticised: - the use of this doll is to be aggressive towards it and it should be hit/thrown - results gained from the study does not tell us much about social learning behaviour - short term effects only: - only examines the ST effects of the social learning that is occurring - we do not know whether or not the children continue with aggressive behaviour in the future - so it does not show how powerful/influential SLT actually is - ethical issues: - children need to be protected from psychological harm and in this study they are being exposed to aggressive behaviour - if they continue to behave like this in real life, they may face negative consequences/punishment - they may also wish to inflict harm on others as they have observed a model do the same thing - ** children should have been debriefed to ensure they were told the real aim **