Relationships - Factors affecting attraction

Question 1

What is evolutionary theory?

Answer 1

• idea that partner preferences are driven by sexual selection
  
  • both males and females choose partners in order to maximise their reproductive success
  • these people are more likely to survive and pass on their genes to their offspring

Question 2

What is the difference in male and female reproductive systems?

Answer 2

• males:
  
  • gametes (sperm cells) reproduce quickly
  • little energy is used
• females:
  
  • gametes (eggs/ova) much less plentiful
  • require far more energy to produce

Question 3

What is intra-sexual selection?

Answer 3

• generally used by males
• members of one sex compete with one another for access to the other sex
  
  • leads to male-female dimorphism (accentuation of secondary sexual characteristics in those with better reproductive health)
• anisogamy suggests that male’s best evolutionary strategy = have as many partners as possible
  
  • present themselves as most attractive mate to fertile female partners
• mate guarding = prevent female partners from mating with anyone else
• cuckoldry = (fearful of) having to raise another man’s child

Question 4

What is inter-sexual selection?

Answer 4

• generally used by females
• members of one sex choose from available prospective mates according to attractiveness
• anisogamy suggests that women will seek a male who displays characteristics of physical health, high status, and resources
  
  • male partner is able to provide and protect their children
  • includes muscular strength, occupation, social class, wealth

Question 5

What are the strengths of the evolutionary explanations of partner preferences?

Answer 5

• research support:
  
  • Buss (1989) conducted survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries
  • found that females reported valuing resource-based characteristics
  • males valued good looks/younger partners
• ecological validity:
  
  • Clark and Hatfield (1989) asked students to approach the opposite sex and ask to go on a date, go back to their apartment, or to go to bed with them
  • males : date = 50%, apartment = 69%, bed = 75%
  • females: date = 50%, apartment = 6%, bed = 0%
  • shows how the idea that males try to have as many partners as possible and that females tend to look for the right partner to have children with

Question 6

What are the weaknesses of the evolutionary explanations of partner preferences?

Answer 6

• deterministic:
  
  • suggests that we have little free-will in partner choice
  • everyday experience shows we do have control over our partner preferences
• socially sensitive (“traditional” values):
  
  • ‘natural’ male and female behaviours do not apply to modern society
  • women are more career orientated/independent (won’t look for resourceful partners as much)
  • availability of contraception means that evolutionary pressures are less relevant
• ignores other relationships:
  
  • little attempt to explain non-heterosexual relationships, cultural variations in relationships which exist across the world, e.g. arranged marriages

Question 7

What is self-disclosure?

Answer 7

• the revealing of personal information, such as thoughts, feelings and experiences to another person

Question 8

What is Altman and Taylor’s (1973) social penetration theory?

Answer 8

• theory claims that gradually revealing emotions and experiences helps couples gain a greater understanding of each other/display trust
• so self-disclosure increases attraction

Question 9

How does self-disclosure affect attraction?

Answer 9

• helps builds trust in their partner as the breadth and depth of self-disclosure increases
• beginning = superficial details revealed
  
  • more intimate details are revealed later on
  • self-disclosing too quickly can reduce attraction

Question 10

What is reciprocal self-disclosure?

Answer 10

• people expect the same level of self-disclosure from others as they actually give
• the more self-disclosure someone gives, the more self-disclosure they expect in return

Question 11

What are the strengths of self-disclosure?

Answer 11

• research support:
  
  • Altman and Taylor (1973) found that self-disclosure on the first date is inappropriate
  • it did not increase attraction levels as they were seen as “maladjusted”/”unlikeable”
• application to real life:
  
  • Tal-Or (2015) found that self-disclosure is a gradual process
  • viewers did not like those who self-disclosed early on on the TV show Big Brother
• cross cultural application:
  
  • Kito (2010) investigated both Japanese and American students in diff. types of relationships
  • self-disclosure was high in both students in heterosexual romantic relationships

Question 12

What are the weaknesses of self-disclosure?

Answer 12

• research against reciprocal self-disclosure:
  
  • Sprecher (2013) found that the level of self-disclosure received is the best predictor than the amount of self-disclosure
• other factors are not considered:
  
  • self-disclosure is not the only factor that determines a potential partner
  • other factors like physical attraction, similarity of attitudes, and complementarity of needs

Question 13

How does physical attractiveness affect attraction?

Answer 13

• men place a greater deal of importance on physical attractiveness when choosing a partner in the short-term and long-term than women
  
  • women only value physical attractiveness in the short-term

Question 14

What is the halo effect?

Answer 14

• when the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from one characteristic alone
  
  • in this case, physical attractiveness

Question 15

How does physical attractiveness cause the halo effect?

Answer 15

• physically attractive people are seen as more sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy
  
  • people tend to behave positively towards those who are physically attractive
  • creates a self-fulfilling prophecy where the physically attractive individual behaves more positively because of the positive attention they receive

Question 16

What are the strengths/weaknesses of the halo effect?

Answer 16

• research support: (+)
  
  • Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable
  • halo effect was so powerful that this idea persisted even when ppts found that they had no expertise
• influence of other factors: (-)
  
  • Towhey (1979) conducted a study where male and female ppts rated an individual based on photograph
  • they completed a MACHO scale which measured sexist attitudes and found that those who scored highly were more influenced by physical attractiveness
  • this shows that physical attractiveness is moderated by other factors like personality

Question 17

What is the matching hypothesis?

Answer 17

• individuals tend to seek partners that have the same social desirability as themselves
  
  • physical attractiveness becomes the major determining factor
  • although people would prefer to form a relationship with someone physically attractive, many will approach others who are of a similar level of attractiveness instead (to avoid rejection)

Question 18

What are the strengths of the matching hypothesis?

Answer 18

• research support:
  
  • Fangold (1988) used a meta-analysis of 17 studies using real life couples and established a strong positive correlation between partners’ rating of physical attractiveness

Question 19

What are the weaknesses of the matching hypothesis?

Answer 19

• research against:
  
  • Walster (1966) invited 752 first-year students at a uni to attend a dance party
  • they were randomly paired and judged by a panel in terms of physical attractiveness
  • 4-6 months later, students were asked whether they found their partner attractive and whether they would like to go on a second date
  • students expressed higher appreciation if the partner was attractive, regardless of their own level of attractiveness
• other theories:
  
  • another theory called the complex matching theory suggests that sometimes an unattractive individual will form a relationship with an attractive individual
  • this is because their partner has traits that make up for their lack of physical attractiveness (e.g. personality, money, high status)

Question 20

What is the filter theory?

Answer 20

• idea proposed by Kerchoff and David (1962) where we use filtering to reduce the field of available partners down to a field of desirable partners

Question 21

What are the three levels of filtering?

Answer 21

• social demography (short-term)
• similarity in attitude (short and long-term)
• complementarity of needs (long-term)

Question 22

What are the strengths of the filter theory?

Answer 22

• research support:
  
  • Taylor (2010) found that 85% of Americans who got married (2008) had married someone
    from their own ethnic group (social demography)
  • individuals seem to choose partners that are similar to them and have a similar background to them
• importance of similarity in attitudes:
  
  • Hoyle (1993) found that perceived attitude similarity can predict attraction more strongly than actual similarity
  • Tidwell tested this hypothesis during speed dating event (quick decisions)
  • he measured actual and perceived similarity of attitudes using a questionnaire and found that perceived similarity predicted romantic liking more than actual similarity

Question 23

What are the weaknesses of the filter theory?

Answer 23

• counter evidence:
  
  • Levinger (1970) conducted research with 330 couples and found no evidence that the similarity of attitudes/complementarity of needs was important when looking at how permanent the relationship was
• counter theory (social demography has no effect):
  
  • Anderson (2003) conducted a longitudinal study of cohabiting partners and found that they are more similar in attitudes/emotional responses
  • at the start of the relationship, their attitudes were not so similar (emotional convergence)
• low temporal validity:
  
  • online dating has shown that it might not be an accurate way to see how relationships progress/form
  • reduction in social demographic variables when we meet someone (easier to meet people who live
    far away, different ethnicity, social class and background
  • this is very different compared to the past (30 years ago)