Approaches - Cognitive/Biological

Question 1

What are inferences?

Answer 1

• the idea that the cognitive model might make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed, and this goes beyond intermediate research evidence (difficult to gather data and evidence about inferences)

Question 2

What is the cognitive approach (+ assumptions)?

Answer 2

• where psychologists focus on attention, memory, how people perceive/store/manipulate/interpret information
• attention
• thinking
• store info in memory
• retrieve info
• ** indirectly study cognitive processes by inferences **

Question 3

What is the Information Processing Model?

Answer 3

• info is received through the senses and is processed by the brain
• info procession is used to describe how computers process information

Question 4

What are schemas?

Answer 4

• packets of info/ideas that are developed through experience and expectations about how we should behave
  
  • can help us organise and interpret vast amounts of info
  • ** schemas can cause us to exclude anything that does not fit in with our ideas about the world **
• role schema:
  
  • about behaviour that is expected from someone in a particular role
• event schema:
  
  • about what to expect from an event

Question 5

What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?

Answer 5

• many applications in diff. areas of psychology:
  
  • can help psychologists understand how to form impressions of other people and how we might form errors/biases
  • explains the development of faulty negative thinking
• emphasises scientific methods/lab experiments:
  
  • high levels of control are exercised in these settings so cause and effect relationships can be identified between the IV/DV
• big influence on cognitive neuroscience/therapies:
  
  • aims to scientifically study the influence of the brain structure on mental processes
  • cognitive therapy aims to change negative thoughts into more positive thoughts to help cure depression

Question 6

What are the weaknesses of the cognitive approach?

Answer 6

• focuses heavily on internal mental processes:
  
  • often ignored by other models in psychology
  • e.g. biological approach focuses on genetics, biochemistry, and neuroanatomy
• does not provide a full picture about what is actually happening in the brain:
  
  • psychologists still need to make inferences which may be based on limited information available from research/experiments
  • questionable whether or not psychologists can really understand/explain thinking by using inferences
• idea of soft determinism:
  
  • the idea that behaviour is constrained by the environment/biology
  • this approach views behaviour as being determined by internal cognitive factors (ignores bio/env.)
  • however, bio may have a big impact on cognitive thinking

Question 7

What is Bartlett’s (1932) study of the role of schemas?

Answer 7

• conducted in a lab setting with English ppts who were asked to read a Native American folk tale (“The War of the Ghosts”)
  
  • after reading the story, they had to recall it after different lengths of time
  • results showed that all the ppts changed the story to fit in with their own schema
• e.g. ‘canoes’ was changed to ‘cars’ and ‘bows’ were changed to ‘guns’
• they found that people use their own schemas to help interpret and remember information

Question 8

What are the strengths of “The War of the Ghosts” study?

Answer 8

• conducted in a lab setting:
  
  • IV is highly controlled in order to accurately measure schemas/internal cognitive processes
  • reliable results and can be obtained again if repeated
• confirms the importance of schemas:
  
  • seems that people recall info that fits in with their schema
  • psychologists can help to ensure that this does not affect people when conducting eyewitness testimony or court proceedings

Question 9

What are the weaknesses of “The War of the Ghosts” study?

Answer 9

• ppts may have shown demand characteristics:
  
  • may have guessed the aim of the study and could have altered their responses in order to fit in with the aim of the study
  • can lead the psychologist to question the validity of the results in relation to schemas/internal cognitive processes
• biased sample used:
  
  • only used English ppts which means that results cannot be generalised to other samples from around the world
    -therefore the results do not give a holistic view of different cultures and how their schemas may operate

Question 10

What are the similarities and differences between the human mind and a computer?

Answer 10

• similarities:
  
  • input
  • memory
  • output
• differences:
  
  • computer = metal, brain = organic
  • computer = limited memory, brain = unlimited

Question 11

What is the information processing model?

Answer 11

• input –> processing –> output

Question 12

What is the emergence of cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 12

• Miller (1991) helped to bridge the gap between cognitive science and neuroscience
  
  • combines the cognitive approach with some elements of the biological approach
  • CN includes computer generated models which can read the brain
• CN = the scientific study of the influence of the brain structure on mental processes
  
  • areas of the brain can be mapped to locate specific cognitive functions
• studying brain:
  
  • FMRI
  • PET

Question 13

What are the strengths of the use of theoretical computer models/the emergence of cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 13

• dominant today in psych
  
  • applied to practical/theoretical contexts
• soft determinism
  
  • cognitive thinking system operates within the limits of what they know and that humans are free to think before they respond to stimuli
• emphasises scientific methods
  
  • e.g. lab experiments
  • high levels of control which can help identify cause and effect between IV and DV

Question 14

What are the weaknesses of the use of theoretical computer models/the emergence of cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 14

• computer models oversimplify behaviour being examined
  
  • reductionist/mechanistic
  • role of emotion is overlooked
• not accurate to compare humans to computers (no free will)
  
  • many differences exist between them
• computers do not explain human behaviour
  
  • e.g. forgetting, getting tired, making mistakes
  • inaccurate to compare human mind and computer

Question 15

What is Maguire’s (2000) study of taxi drivers’ brains?

Answer 15

• wanted to see if the brain anatomy is predetermined or susceptible to plastic changes
• 32 males investigated
  
  • 16 = licensed London taxi drivers
  • 16 = control group (never driven taxis)
• MRI scans of both groups were taken
  
  • right posterior hippocampus of taxi drivers’ brain was larger than the control group
  • longer they had been driving, the bigger the hippocampus

Question 16

What are the strengths/weaknesses of Maguire’s study?

Answer 16

• strengths:
  
  • combines both cognitive and biological factors (uses MRI brain scans)
  • research evidence to support right posterior hippocampus is involved in spatial awareness
• weaknesses:
  
  • only males were investigated (population validity)
  • lacks temporal validity (sat navs used these days)

Question 17

What are genetics?

Answer 17

• extent to which a psychological characteristic is determined by genes
• involves passing on characteristics from one gen. to the next

Question 18

What is genotype?

Answer 18

• genetic code written in the DNA which are inherited from biological parents

Question 19

What is phenotype?

Answer 19

• characteristics that are determined by expression of physical, behavioural, and psychological traits
  
  • genotype + environmental factors = phenotype

Question 20

What are the strengths of genetics?

Answer 20

• gene mapping can help to locate genes on chromosomes:
  
  • scientific/objective
• often involves twins/adoption studies:
  
  • helpful for MZ studies (examine concordance rates in relation to behaviour)
• can help psychologists to screen people to see if they carry genes for certain illnesses
  
  • gene mapping helps identify mental illnesses/diseases

Question 21

What are the weaknesses of genetics?

Answer 21

• reductionist
  
  • takes complex human behaviour (IQ) and reduces it to small components like genes
• other models and approaches are ignored
  
  • cognitive and behavioural approaches should also be considered when examining behaviour

Question 22

What is Gottesman and Shields’ schizophrenia study?

Answer 22

• 224 sets of twins who were studied for the schizophrenic gene
  
  • longitudinal study (25 years)
    - relied on the fact that one twin already had the illness
  • concordance rates were investigated
• used in depth interviews, doctors case notes and the DSM
• 48% of MZ twins were both concordant for schizophrenia
• 17% of DZ twins were both concordant

Question 23

What are the strengths/weaknesses of Gottesman and Shields’ study?

Answer 23

• strengths:
  
  • longitudinal
  • Gottesman and Shields supports the biological approach
• weaknesses:
  
  • ignores behavioural approach when examining schizophrenic patients
  • G and S study relied on interviews with patients (may have struggled to effectively communicate symptoms)

Question 24

What is the evolution theory by Charles Darwin (1851)?

Answer 24

• focussed on natural selection and adaptiveness to the environment over time
  
  • genetic makeup of an individual can undergo a random mutation due to the environment and his can be passed down to offspring

Question 25

What are the strengths/weaknesses of the evolutionary approach?

Answer 25

- strengths: - supported by the nature side of nature/nurture debate (biology and interactions with the environment have a *direct* effect on our behaviour) - heavily supported by Charles Darwin and survival of the fittest (explains adaptiveness) - weaknesses: - does not clearly explain how/why some behaviours may be adaptive (e.g. OCD) - fails to take into account behavioural and cognitive explanations for behaviour (idea of all species wanting to reproduce and aid survival takes away free will)

Question 26

What is Buss’ (1989) study on sexual selection?

Answer 26

- investigated what males and females looked for in long term partner - 10,000 ppts across 37 cultures - had to rate 18 characteristics using a 4 point scale - found that females desired males with good financial prospects, ambition - males desired females with reproductive value, fertile - ** supports evolutionary explanations for partner preferences **

Question 27

What are the strengths/weaknesses of Buss’ study?

Answer 27

- strengths - cross cultural validity and supports idea that females want to be cared for by male partner - weaknesses - Buller (2005) criticised Buss' research findings and that women are much more independent/have their own resources - does not take into account social and cultural perspectives that can affect partner choice

Question 28

What are the biological structures of the body?

Answer 28

- neurons/nervous system - CNS (brain and spinal cord) - PNS - brain - parietal = sensations - frontal = executive function - temporal = language - occipital = vision control

Question 29

What are the strengths of biological structures?

Answer 29

- relies on the use of scans - PET and MRI scans, post mortem studies - adds to scientific evidence that supports biological approach - scientifically/objectively investigates brain structures - brain can be investigated using FMRI and PET scanning

Question 30

What are the weaknesses of biological structures?

Answer 30

- more applicable at explaining causes of some behaviours - some behaviours cannot be explained by these ideas - cause and effect is a disadvantage - e.g. does brain malfunction always cause a certain behaviour - psychologists still do not know 100% about the brain - can be a problem when trying to identify which part of the brain is responsible for certain behaviours

Question 31

What is Swayze’s study on the brain structure?

Answer 31

- reviewed 50 studies of schizophrenic patients and used MRI scans - schizophrenic patients have a decrease in brain weight, enlarged ventricles, smaller hypothalamus, less grey matter, structural abnormalities in prefrontal cortex

Question 32

What are the strengths and weaknesses of Swayze’s study?

Answer 32

- strengths - strong amount of evidence supporting the fact that schizophrenia is caused by *neural correlates* changing in the brain - weaknesses - does not explain *why* schizophrenia occurs in early adulthood (not during infancy) - Andreason (1982) criticises this as there is very little difference between the neural correlates of a schizophrenic patient and a normal person - Davison and Neale (2001) found that enlarged ventricles are also found in sufferers of mania (this factor alone cannot cause schizophrenia)

Question 33

What are neurotransmitters and its effect on behaviour?

Answer 33

- biochemistry of the CNS - brain chemicals that communicate info throughout our brain and body, they relay signals between nerve cells, called neurons - transmission of chemicals in the brain occur via the *cerebral fluid* - *endocrine system* is responsible for producing hormones in the body - consists of ductless glands that release hormones

Question 34

What are strengths of neurochemistry?

Answer 34

- can be measured scientifically and objectively - e.g. needle in spine and extracting spinal plasma fluid - knowing a lack/excess of a neurotransmitter's effect on behaviour can allow for relevant treatments

Question 35

What are the weaknesses of neurochemistry?

Answer 35

- cause and effect needs to be established - can be viewed as reductionist - to say complex human behaviour is affected by neurotransmitters alone is too simplistic - criticised by cognitive approach - this approach states that behaviour is caused by thought patterns and thinking

Question 36

What is Davis and Neale’s (dopamine hypothesis) neurochemistry study?

Answer 36

- schizophrenic patients have high levels of dopamine in their brain - phenothiazines (dopamine blockers) help to reduce positive symptoms like hallucinations and delusions - L-Dopa increases dopamine levels

Question 37

What are the strengths/weaknesses of the dopamine hypothesis?

Answer 37

- strengths - great deal of research to support the hypothesis that schizophrenic patients have high dopamine - scientific research to support this (fMRI and PET scans) - weaknesses - can be viewed as reductionist (idea that dopamine alone can cause schizophrenia) - cause and effect not clear (the illness may occur before dopamine increase which causes its levels to then rise) - dopamine has been associated with many other psychological illnesses (complex role, not just schizophrenia)