Research methods Flashcards

Question

What is the main research issue randomization reduces?

Answer 1

Investigator effects.

Answer 2

- Using exactly the same formalized procedures and instructions for ALL participants in the research study. - This ensures that non standardized changes in procedure do not act as extraneous variables.

Answer 3

Experimental designs refers to ways in which participants are used in experiments. This is how they are arranged / organized in relation to experimental conditions.

Answer 4

- Independent groups - Repeated measures - Matched pairs

Answer 5

An experimental design in which participants are allocated to different groups, where each group represents one experimental condition (such as control or experimental)

Answer 6

- Order effects Using independent group design eliminates the problem of order effects (fatigue) - Participant variables Participants are not the same in terms of participant variables - if a researcher finds a mean difference between groups in the dependent variable, this may be due to participant variables as opposed to the IV. This confounds and reduces the validity of the findings. - Less economical and efficient More people are needed to produce equivalent data to what would have been produced by a repeated measures design. So, it increases the time and money spent on recruiting participants who would only produce a single result.

Answer 7

In a repeated design, all participants take part in ALL conditions of the experiment.

Answer 8

- Controlled participant variables As the same participants are used in each condition, participant variables (such as individual differences) are minimized - creating higher validity. - Order effects The order of conditions can effect participant behavior. This can be in the form of practice effect where the second condition could have better performance as the participants know what to do or fatigue effect where performance deteriorates on the second task. Order effects, therefore are CONFOUNDING variables. - More time-efficient and economical Fewer participants are needed, so less time and money is spent recruiting them. - Demand characteristics It is more likely that participants would work out the aim of the study if they had experienced all conditions - creating an extraneous effect.

Answer 9

Where two participants are matched together based on variables that can effect the DV, and then allocated to separate groups. - This then is run like an independent groups design.

Answer 10

- Order effects and demand characteristics are reduced The participants only take part in a single condition - Time consuming and expensive If a pre-test is required to match pairs, this can extend the time taken to carry out the investigation and cost more. - Participant variables not fully eliminated Even with matched pairs effort to reduce participant variable effects, no participant can ever be matched exactly. Even monozygotic twins have individual differences able to impact the DV. - Counterbalancing not necessary. As participants only take part in one condition, there is no effort of counterbalancing required to reduce order effects.

Answer 11

Random allocation

Answer 12

Counter-balancing (ABBA technique).

Answer 13

- Random allocation ensures that participant variables are addressed through evenly distributing participants across the experimental condition - Random techniques are used such as pulling numbers out of a hat.

Answer 14

Counterbalancing ensures that order effects are minimized. Half the participants, for example, take part in condition A then B and the other half take part in condition B then A. (It doesn't prevent the problem, it attempts to balance out effects).

Answer 15

- Laboratory experiment - Field experiment - Natural experiment - Quasi-experiment

Answer 16

An experiment that takes place in a highly controlled environment.

Answer 17

It allows the researcher to manipulate the IV to record the effect on the DV, maintaining control of extraneous variables.

Answer 18

- Control of extraneous and confounding variables From this, the researcher can ensure any effect on the dependent variable is due to only the manipulation of the independent variable - allowing the establishment of a 'cause and effect' relationship. This has HIGH INTERNAL VALIDITY. - High repeatability. Replication is more possible in lab experiments compared to the others due to high control. This ensures that new extraneous variables aren't introduced when repeating the experiment. This is vital to check the validity of the findings, showing it was not a one off result.

Answer 19

- Lacks generalizability The laboratory environment is most often artificial, not seen in everyday life. This environment may prompt participants to behave unnaturally so their behavior shouldn't be generalized beyond the research setting - having LOW EXTERNAL VALIDITY. - Demand characteristics Participants are usually aware that they are being tested in a lab so may behave unnaturally. - Low mundane realism Lab experiments usually will use artificial stimuli to complement the artificial setting, this means that the tasks the participants are asked to carry out may not represent everyday experience.

Answer 20

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records changes in the DV.

Answer 21

- Higher mundane realism Compared to lab experiments, the environment of field experiments is more natural - from this, field experiments produce more valid and authentic behavior, especially when done covertly. This gives high external validity.

Answer 22

- Loss of control over extraneous and confounding variables. As the setting is more natural, there is lack of control over any extraneous variables that would be minimized in a laboratory setting. This means that cause and effect is more difficult to establish and precise replications are often not possible. - Ethics Field experiments, when conducted covertly, means that participants may be unaware that they are being studied - hence, not being able to give consent. This means such research can constitute an invasion of privacy.

Answer 23

An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher, instead it happens naturally and the researcher records its subsequent effects on the DV they have decided on. For example, the researcher has no control over the IV of a child being in hospital and is unable to manipulate it.

Answer 24

- The IV is naturally occurring, unable to be manipulated by the researcher. - The setting is not necessarily natural - participants may still be lab tested. - The DV also depends, it may be naturally occurring such as exam results or devised by the experimenter and measured either by field or lab.

Answer 25

- High external validity Natural experiments have high external validity due to involving the study of real-world issues as they occur, such as stress levels and disasters. - New research opportunities Natural experiments give research opportunities that would have not been present before due to practical or ethical purposes, such as the institutionalized Romanian orphan study.

Answer 26

- Reduced research opportunity Naturally occurring events, as studied in natural experiments, may be rare which limits the space for generalizing findings to other similar situations. - Lack of random allocation Random allocation is only present in independent group designs, meaning the researcher be less sure whether the IV affected the DV. For example, in the Romanian orphan study, the IV was the lateness of when they were adopted. Despite this, there were lots of differences (participant variables) between these two groups as those who were adopted late would be more unsociable and less appealing for adoptive parents.

Answer 27

A quasi-experiment is not exactly an experiment, in this the IV is not determined by anyone - instead, being based on pre-existing differences between individuals such as being young or old. In this, the independent variable cannot be changed.

Answer 28

- Highly controlled Minimizes extraneous variables and enhances repeatability. - No random allocation Like natural experiments, quasi-experiments do not randomly allocate participants so there may be confounding variables - IV cannot be manipulated. As the researcher is unable to manipulate the IV, we cannot claim that the IV has caused any observed change.

Answer 29

Internal validity is about the design of the experiment, what is going on - such as the control. External validity is about how the findings are able to be generalized from studies to everyday life situations.

Answer 30

- In a field experiment, the researcher is able to manipulate the IV whereas in a natural experiment the researcher has no control over the IV - something else causes this variance. - In a field experiment, the setting is natural where the researcher goes to the participants environment. For natural experiments, the setting does not necessarily have to be natural, only the IV is definitely naturally occurring.

Answer 31

- A natural experiment is where the IV would have occurred regardless of the investigators presence - the IV is naturally occurring - A quasi-experiment has also has non manipulated IVs, however the IVs are based on pre-existing differences between participants

Answer 32

A group of people who are the **focus of the researchers interest**, from which a smaller sample is drawn

Answer 33

A group of people who take part in a research investigation, drawn from a 'target population'

Answer 34

For practical and economic reasons, one cannot include every single member of the target population so a smaller group is selected, creating a sample.

Answer 35

Representative - the sample should be representative of the target population so that findings can be generalized more appropriately.

Answer 36

- Random sampling - Systematic sampling - Stratified sampling - Opportunity sampling - Volunteer sampling

Answer 37

Sampling in a way that ensures that all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.

Answer 38

1 ) Obtain a complete list of all members within the target population 2 ) Assign the names on the list a number 3 ) Select the sample through use of lottery method, such as picking numbers out of a hat or using a randomizer.

Answer 39

- Potentially unbiased Random samples are potentially unbiased, this means confounding and extraneous variables would be equally divided between the groups, enhancing internal validity. - Difficult and time consuming. The method of random sampling can be difficult and time consuming in the sense that a complete list of the target population may be difficult to get, especially concerning the privacy of people. - Does not enhance representativeness Even using random techniques, there is still a chance for the sample to be unrepresentative. Probability suggests that random sampling should more likely produce a representative sample compared to opportunity sampling, however it is not impossible that random technique can still select people from a similar sub-demographic. - Refusal Even after the difficulty and effort to gain a list of the target population, participants may still refuse to take part - this makes the sample become more volunteer-like compared to random.

Answer 40

A sampling technique in which every nth member of the target population is selected (for example, every 5th pupil on the register)

Answer 41

1 ) Produce a sampling frame into which the list of people in the target population are organized into (usually alphabetical) 2 ) Set up a sampling system, for example picking every 3rd or 6th person. 3 ) Work through the sampling frame until the sample is complete.

Answer 42

- Objective Systematic sampling is objective as once the system for selection has been established, the researcher has no influence over who is selected - reducing bias. - Time consuming. The systematic method is time consuming as setting up a frame and system to achieve this may take a long time to gather participants and, in addition, they can also refuse.

Answer 43

A sampling technique in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) of the target population or general population.

Answer 44

1 ) The researcher identifies the different strata that make up the population that will be sampled 2 ) The proportions needed for the sample to be representative are calculated. 3 ) The participants making up each stratum are then RANDOMLY sampled.

Answer 45

- Representative Stratification produces a representative sample due to the design accurately reflecting the true composition of the population. This means that generalization of findings is possible. - Cannot be fully generalized. Stratification, however is not perfect. The identified strata is still subject to participant variables so complete representation of the target population is not possible.

Answer 46

Opportunity sampling is where researchers select participants based on who is willing and available.

Answer 47

Opportunity sampling could be achieved simply by approaching or asking whoever is around at the time of study, for example on the street.

Answer 48

- Convenient Opportunity sampling is convenient. The methodology is less costly in money and time compared to random sampling due to not requiring a list of target population members and there is no need for calculation and division of these into strata. - Bias Researcher bias can play a role in opportunity sampling. The researcher has complete control over the selection of participants leading to conscious, or unconscious favor of those who look more approachable and avoidance of those they do not like the look of. - Unrepresentative. The sample would suffer from being unrepresentative of the target population as it may be drawn from one specific area such as a singular high street - therefore, it cannot be generalized.

Answer 49

A sampling technique in which participants select themselves to partake in the sample, also called self-selection.

Answer 50

The researcher may place an advertisement in a newspaper or on a notice board. In addition, participants may even raise their hand physically to volunteer when asked by the researcher.

Answer 51

- Minimal effort. Collecting a volunteer sample is easy, requiring minimal input from the researcher (therefore, avoiding researcher bias) so it is less time consuming than other forms of sampling. - Volunteer bias Volunteer sampling is susceptible to volunteer bias. Asking for volunteers as opposed to seeking them out through alternative sampling techniques may attract a specific profile of person. Volunteers may be more likely to 'please' the researcher and alter their behavior which then affects how far the findings can be generalized.

Answer 52

Conflicts existing between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of the researcher to produce authentic and worthwhile data.

Answer 53

- Informed consent - Deception - Protection from harm - Privacy and confidentiality.

Answer 54

Making participants aware of the aims of research, procedures, their rights in relation to withdrawal and what the data would be used for. Following this, the participant should make an informed judgement whether to take part in the experiment or not without coercion.

Answer 55

Deception is deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation.

Answer 56

An ethical issue that states that as a result of their involvement, participants should not be subject to any more risk than they would be in their daily lives - being protected from physical and psychological harm.

Answer 57

Privacy and confidentiality refers to the right to control information about ourselves (privacy) and to have any personal data protected (confidentiality).

Answer 58

A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society that instructs UK psychologists on acceptable and non-acceptable behavior when dealing with participants.

Answer 59

The BPS code of conduct acts as guidelines, meaning a researcher has a professional duty to abide by these when conducting research. The guidelines attempt to ensure participants are treated with respect and consideration in regards to the ethical issues present.

Answer 60

Guidelines are implemented by ethics committees who use a COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS to determine whether research proposals are ethically acceptable.

Answer 61

Participants should be issued with a consent letter/form detailing all relevant information that could affect their decision to participate. For investigations involving children under 16, parental consent is required?

Answer 62

- Presumptive consent: Rather than gaining participant consent, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable, if it is agreed, consent of the original participants is presumed. - Prior general consent: Participants give permission to take part in a number of different studies - including ones involving deception, so, they ultimately have consented to being deceived. - Retrospective consent: The participants are asked for their consent during a debrief - having already taken part in the study.

Answer 63

- Give a full debrief: include the true aims of the study, any details not supplied during the study and what the data will be used for. - Give right to withdraw during study - Have the right to withhold data. - May require counselling LMAO.

Answer 64

- Protect personal details or, alternatively, maintain anonymity by not recording personal details in the first place. This can be achieved through referring to participants as numbers or using initials in case studies. - Remind participants that their data will be protected and not shared during BRIEFING and DEBRIEFING.

Answer 65

A small-scale trial run of the actual investigation, involving a handful of participants, rather than the total number to 'road-test' the procedure to ensure it runs smoothly.

Answer 66

To 'road-test' the procedure and materials, allowing modification to ensure the actual investigation runs smoothly. In the long run, this ensures potential issues are eliminated and saves time and money.

Answer 67

NO! They are not restricted to experimental studies, they also apply to self-report methods to test questions and eliminate those that are ambiguous. In addition, they are also used for observational studies to check coding systems.

Answer 68

A procedure in which the experimenter is aware of what conditions the subjects are in, whereas the subjects do not.

Answer 69

To control the confounding variable of demand characteristics.

Answer 70

A procedure in which both the participants AND the experimenter are not aware of the aims of the investigation or the conditions.

Answer 71

To prevent any information from investigator effects creating demand characteristics.

Answer 72

- Naturalistic & Controlled observation - Covert & Overt observation - Participant & Non-participant observation.

Answer 73

- Allows psychologists to see what people do without having to ask them - Also allows researchers to study behavior in a natural or controlled setting, being flexible to study more complex interactions between variables.

Answer 74

An observational technique that involves watching and recording behavior that takes place in the setting in which it would normally occur.

Answer 75

- High external validity Behavior is studied in the natural setting or context in which it would occur - this provides high external validity, in turn, making findings more able to be generalized to real life. - Lack of control Aspects of the environment are free to vary - leading to the potential of uncontrolled confounding/extraneous variables to be introduced. This reduction of control can lead to replication being extremely difficult.

Answer 76

An observational technique involving watching and recording behavior within a structured environment (where variables are managed)

Answer 77

- High control The environment is structured, this means that researchers can control confounding / extraneous variables - this improves the internal validity and makes it more REPLICABLE - Low external validity Controlled observations produce findings that cannot be as readily applied to everyday life than naturalistic observation. This makes generalization harder due to the more artificial setting involved.

Answer 78

An observational technique in which participant behavior is watched and recorded WITHOUT their knowledge and consent.

Answer 79

- Internal validity Covert observations involve the fact that the participant is unaware that they are being watched. This removes the problem of demand characteristics to ensure any behavior observed is natural - increasing the internal validity of the data. - Ethics Ethics of covert observations may be questioned as people, even in public, may not wish or consent to have their behaviors recorded due to privacy concerns.

Answer 80

An observational technique in which participant behavior is watched and recorded WITH their knowledge and consent

Answer 81

- More ethically acceptable. As part of overt observations, informed consent must be gained before the observation occurs. Compared to it's covert counterpart, overt observations address the ethical issue of informed consent alongside privacy and confidentiality. - Can alter behavior. As with overt observation informed consent must be gained, it leads participants to perhaps alter their behavior due to demand characteristics or social desirability bias as they are aware of being watched. This can act as a significant influence on their behavior, damaging the validity of the findings.

Answer 82

An observational technique in which the researcher (observer) becomes part of the group who's behavior they are watching and recording.

Answer 83

- Increased external validity The researcher may be able to experience the situation as participants do - giving them an increased insight into the lives and actions of those being studied. This gives the data more value and can increase the external validity of findings. - Loss of objectivity As this observation technique involves the researcher joining the group, there is a danger of them identifying too strongly with those they are studying so objectivity may be lost.

Answer 84

An observational technique in which the researcher remains outside of the group who's behavior is being watched and recorded.

Answer 85

- Objectivity maintained This technique allows objectivity to be maintained through having an objective psychological distance from their participants. This reduces 'adopting a local lifestyle' and too strongly identifying with the participants the researcher is observing. - Loss of valuable insight. As a result of maintaining an objective distance from the observed participants, there is a consequence of loosing valuable insight that would only be gained by the proximity of participant observations.

Answer 86

- Observer bias: The observers interpretation of a situation or behavior could be affected by their expectations - Cannot demonstrate a casual relationship: Although observational studies can aid establishing 'cause-and-effect' relationships, they cannot demonstrate casual relationships.

Answer 87

- Unstructured observation - Structured observation

Answer 88

A way of recording data in which the researcher simply takes note of all behaviors they see without a plan of what to note.

Answer 89

Unstructured observations are typically used when observations are small in scale with only a few participants.

Answer 90

- Data richness Unstructured observations allow for data richness as they benefit from the depth of detail in the data collected due to the possibility of capturing an event that would not be an option to record in structured observations - Observer bias Unstructured observations have a greater risk of observer bias due to objective behavioral categories (a feature of structured observations) not being present. The researcher may only record data that 'catches the eye' which can contribute to missing important or useful information.

Answer 91

A way of recording observational data in which the researcher will simplify it to 'target behaviors' through utilizing behavioral categories.

Answer 92

- More systematic Structured observations that involve the use of behavioral categories make recording of data easier and more systematic. It produces data likely to be numerical (QUANTITATIVE) which means analyzing and comparing data is more straightforward. - Objective (reduces observer bias) Structured observations have a reduced risk of observer bias due to using behavioral categories that leave little room for varied interpretation or straying from the set target behaviors.

Answer 93

Where, as part of a structured observation, target behavior is broken down into components that are observable and measurable (OPERATIONALIZATION)

Answer 94

- Behaviors must be precisely defined and measurable - Behaviors must be observable - NO inferences should be made. - Should be clear and unambiguous - Exclusive and non-overlapping

Answer 95

- Continuous recording (All instances of target behavior is recorded)

Answer 96

- Time sampling - Event sampling

Answer 97

A sampling method for structured observations involving counting the amount of times a particular behavior (the event) occurs in a target individual or group.

Answer 98

- Aids infrequency Event sampling is useful when the target behavior (event) is infrequent and could be missed if time sampling was used. - Cannot deal with complexity If the specified event is too complex, the observer may overlook important details.

Answer 99

A sampling method for structured observations involving recording behavior in a pre-established time frame (e.g: every 30 seconds)

Answer 100

- Reduces number of observations This means that data will be more concise and important details will be overlooked less. - Unrepresentative When behavior is sampled in intervals it may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole.

Answer 101

The extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behavior in the same way. It involves having more than one observer to reduce bias

Answer 102

Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, thoughts, behaviors or experiences related to a given topic.

Answer 103

- Questionnaires - Interviews

Answer 104

A self report technique that is formatted as a set of questions (or items) used to assess a persons thoughts and experiences.

Answer 105

- Open questions - Closed questions

Answer 106

A way of presenting questionnaires, this is where questions do not have a fixed range of answers so respondents are free to answer in any way they wish - this produces qualitative data.

Answer 107

A way of presenting questionnaires, this is where there are a fixed number of responses, restricting them to categories such as 'yes' or 'no'

Answer 108

- Cost and time effective They are an effective way of gathering data as they can gather large amounts quickly with large numbers of participants - producing a large volume of data. In addition, the researcher does not have to be there to direct it, reducing effort expended. - Easy to analyze Questionnaires tend to produce straightforward and easy to analyze data, especially with the closed question format. The data lends itself to statistical analysis, so comparisons between groups of people can be made and presented either in graphs or charts. - Demand characteristic Questionnaire responses have potential to be untruthful. Respondents can be subject to a demand characteristic called social desirability bias - this is where they will produce false and untruthful responses in order to present themselves positively. - Response bias Questionnaires can produce a response bias, this is where respondents tend to reply in a similar way (such as constantly ticking yes or favoring an end of a rating scale). This creates the issue of respondents completing the questionnaire too fast and failing to read it properly. ACQUIESCENCE BIAS is a form of this, also known as 'yes saying'.

Answer 109

A self report technique involving a 'live' encounter (face to face or speaking directly) where one person, the interviewer, asks a set of questions to assess the interviewees thought and feelings.

Answer 110

- Structured interview - Semi-structured interview - Unstructured interview

Answer 111

A type of interview where the questions asked are pre-determined and asked in a fixed order.

Answer 112

- Replicable Structured interviews are straightforward to replicate due to being in a standardized format. This format reduces differences between interviews, increasing the replicability which allows to check for validity. - Limit to data richness Structured interviews do not allow interviewers to deviate from the topic or further elaborate on their questions. This limits the richness of data able to be collected and restricts unexpected information from being revealed.

Answer 113

A type of interview where the questions take the form of both structured and unstructured. In this, questions have been pre-determined yet the interviewers are free to ask follow up questions.

Answer 114

A type of interview where there are no pre-set questions, the conversation is free-flowing around a certain aim topic - in this, the interviewees are encouraged to elaborate and expand on their answers.

Answer 115

- Flexibility There is more flexibility in unstructured interviews. The interviewer can gain data richness from following up on points as they arise, being much more likely to gain insight into the view of the interviewee and gain unexpected information. - Increased risk of interviewer bias - Analysis difficulty Analysis of data from unstructured interviews may not be straightforward. The researcher, through not having a rigid question schedule may have to sift through much irrelevant information so drawing firm conclusions is difficult.

Answer 116

- Likert scales - Rating scales - Fixed choice option

Answer 117

A questionnaire design in which the respondent indicates their AGREEMENT with a statement using a scale of 5 points (usually). These can range from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Answer 118

A questionnaire design in which respondents identify a value that represents their strength of feeling on a particular topic.

Answer 119

*A questionnaire design* which includes a list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate which apply to them.

Answer 120

- An interview schedule is planned - this is the list of questions being asked which should be STANDARDIZED. - The interviewer takes notes during the interview, or the interview is recorded to be reviewed later. - Participant numbers are to be determined: it mostly takes the form of a single participant though group interviews can be used in clinical settings. - The interview should be conducted in a separate and quiet room to allow the interviewees to open up - The interview should start with neutral questions to relax the interviewee and establish rapport. - Finally, remind them that their answers will be treated with strict confidence.

Answer 121

- Overuse of jargon (Do not use specialized terms, reduce the complexity to make the question simple and easy to understand) - Emotive language and leading questions (Avoid using language that reveals a bias or attitude, or one that guides the participant towards a certain answer) - Double barreled questions (Double barreled questions have two questions in one, respondents therefore can agree with one but not the other: 'Footballers are overpaid and should have to give 20% of earnings to charity') - Double negative questions (Questions that include double negatives make it hard to decipher: 'I am not unhappy in my job agree/disagree')

Answer 122

A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates the ASSOCIATION between two variables called CO-VARIABLES.

Answer 123

Scattergrams

Answer 124

As one co-variable increases, so does the other.

Answer 125

As one co-variable increases, the other co-variable decreases

Answer 126

Where there is no relationship between co-variables.

Answer 127

- Positive correlation - Negative correlation - Zero correlation

Answer 128

- In experiments, the researcher controls / manipulates the IV to measure change in the DV. From this, it is possible to infer that the IV caused any observed change in the DV. - In correlations, any one co-variable is not manipulated so it is not possible to establish cause and effect relationships.

Answer 129

- Useful preliminary tool Correlations are a useful preliminary tool - assessing the strength and direction of a relationship. Precise and quantifiable measures are used to observe how two variables are related. From this, using correlations can suggest ideas for future research hypothesis, acting as a starting point to assess possible patterns before the researcher commits to a topic. - Quick and economical Correlations are relatively quick and economical as there is no need for controlling the environment or manipulating variables. Secondary data collected by others can be used, meaning it is less time consuming than experiments. - Cannot demonstrate cause and effect relationships. Correlations lack experimental manipulation and control. Correlation studies can only tell us how variables are related, not WHY. As there is no demonstrated cause-and-effect we cannot tell which co-variable is actually causing the change. - Intervening variables It may be the case that another external and untested variable is causing the relationship between the two identified co-variables. This is called an intervening variable, or third-variable problem. This key unaccounted for variable, in effect, could be causing the relationship between the other two co-variables.

Answer 130

Variables investigated within a correlation. They are not referred to as IV and DV as correlations looks at association between variables, not cause and effect.

Answer 131

- Qualitative - Quantitative - Primary - Secondary

Answer 132

Data that is expressed in words rather than numerical form. For example: written descriptions or transcripts as opposed to numbers or statistics.

Answer 133

- External validity. Qualitative forms of data offers more richness in detail compared to quantitative. The scope of qualitative data is much more broader, giving the participant more opportunity to fully report their thoughts. For this reason, qualitative data tends to have higher external validity as it provides a more meaningful insight into the participants view. - Difficult to analyze Qualitative data can be difficult to analyze. Even though it can be converted to quantitative, it is still difficult to summarize statistically - this means that patterns and comparisons are hard to identify. The consequence of this is that conclusions drawn may be subjective and vulnerable to bias.

Answer 134

Quantitative data is data that can be counted, usually expressed numerically.

Answer 135

- Easy to analyze Quantitative data is easy to analyze due to its numerical nature - this makes it straightforward to summarize statistically and find patterns when comparing results. - Less open to bias When data is collected in numerical form, as in quantitative data, it is more objective and less prone to bias from subjective opinion. - Lacks data richness With quantitative data, compared to qualitative data, the scope of data collected is much narrower in meaning and detail. This means it may fail to fully represent 'real-life'.

Answer 136

Data/information collected that has been obtained first-hand, collected by researchers directly from participants, through self-report, observation or experiment.

Answer 137

- Authentic and tailored Primary data is authentic data collected from participants themselves. When the researcher collects data, rather than relying on secondary data from others, it maintains control. Primary data collection can be personalized / tailored specifically to fit the aim of the investigation - reducing any irrelevant information. - Time and effort. Producing primary data requires time and effort. Conducting an experiment produces primary data, for example, yet it requires considerable planning, preparation and resources.

Answer 138

Data/information that has already been collected by someone else and so predates the current research project. This can be in the form of other psychologists work or government statistics.

Answer 139

- Inexpensive and accessible Secondary data may be inexpensive and easy to access as it requires minimal effort to collect already established data. The desired information may already exist so there is no need to waste time and resources to conduct primary data collection. - Unknown quality or accuracy. Secondary data, unlike primary data is unable to be tailored to the investigation being conducted - the researcher lacks control. There is a chance the information may be outdated or incomplete, unable to match the researchers objectives. This challenges the validity of conclusions drawn from this.

Answer 140

A form of research method using secondary data. It is the process of combining the findings of previous studies to produce an overall statistical conclusion (EFFECT SIZE).

Answer 141

A meta-analysis aims to produce an overall statistical conclusion based on multiple studies. A review is where a number of studies are compared and discussed.

Answer 142

- Large sample Meta-analysis allows the creation of large, more varied samples. This ensures results can be generalized across much larger populations - increasing external validity. - Publication bias. Meta-analysis is vulnerable to publication bias, also referred to as 'file-drawer problem'. The researcher could be selective, leaving out relevant studies that have negative or non-significant results. Therefore, conclusions from meta-analysis holds potential to be biased as they can only represent some of the relevant data.

Answer 143

Various ways of summarizing and analyzing numerical data to draw meaningful conclusions, including measures of central tendency.

Answer 144

'Averages' that provide information on the most typical values in a set of data.

Answer 145

- Mean (arithmetic average) - Median (central value) - Mode (most frequently occurring value)

Answer 146

- Sensitive The mean is the most sensitive measure of central tendency as it involves all the scores/values in the data set within the calculation. This means that it accounts for the data as a whole, being more representative. - Easily distorted by extreme values The mean is easily distorted by extreme values, if a large anomaly is present in the data set it can distort the result and give a mean above or below the average/modal values in the set.

Answer 147

- Unaffected by anomalies Unlike the mean, if there is an extreme anomaly that can distort the data set, using the median bypasses this and remains unaffected. - Less sensitive Compared to the mean, the under sensitivity of the median to higher or lower numbers makes it dismissive of other values in the data set as a whole, especially when extreme numbers may be important.

Answer 148

- May be only viable option For data presented in categories (NON NUMERICALLY) - the mode is the only method to use. For example, finding the most 'typical' value in what desserts people like - you would select the 'modal' group. - Crude measure The mode often can be different from the mean and median - making it potentially unrepresentative of the whole data set. More importantly, multiple modes present in a data set means that this measure of central tendency would be no longer useful.

Answer 149

Where there are two modes in the data set (There can also be 'no mode' where there are none)

Answer 150

Any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores.

Answer 151

- Range (simple dispersion in a set of scores) - Standard deviation (how each score deviates from the mean)

Answer 152

A sophisticated measure of dispersion, telling us the extent to which scores deviate from the mean.

Answer 153

- The larger the standard deviation, the greater the dispersion or spread within a set of data. - If done on experimental conditions, a large standard deviation suggests that not all participants were effected by the IV in the same way. - It also could be due to anomalous results.

Answer 154

- A lower the standard deviation, the more tightly clustered the scores around the mean. - In experimental conditions, this implies participants responded in a fairly similar way to the IV.

Answer 155

- Precise Standard deviation is a more precise measure of dispersion compared to the range. It includes all values in the data set within its calculation - making it more representative. - Able to be distorted Like the mean, standard deviation is able to be distorted by extreme values. In addition, extreme values may not be revealed - unlike the range. - Harder to calculate

Answer 156

- Table - Bar chart - Histogram - Scattergrams - Linegraph

Answer 157

NO They are not merely raw scores, they have been converted to descriptive statistics.

Answer 158

A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars.

Answer 159

Used when data is divided into categories (DISCRETE DATA)

Answer 160

Separated to show we are dealing with separate conditions.

Answer 161

A type of graph that shows frequency, but unlike the bar chart, the area of the bars (not just the height) represents frequency. The X-Axis must start from 0 and the scale is CONTINUOUS.

Answer 162

Used when data is continuous, the X-Axis is broken up into intervals - the Y-axis depicts the frequency within each interval

Answer 163

- In a bar chart, data is discrete whereas in a histogram data is continuous - In a histogram the bars touch to show data is continuous whereas in bar charts, bars do not touch to signify data is discrete.

Answer 164

A type of graph that represents the strength AND direction of the relationship between co-variables in a correlation analysis.

Answer 165

During correlational analysis, they do not depict differences - they depict ASSOCIATIONS between one co-variable (situated on the x axis) and another co-variable (situated on the y axis).

Answer 166

Scattergrams show associations, histograms and bar charts show differences.

Answer 167

- Normal distribution - Skewed distribution (positive skew or negative skew)

Answer 168

Where there is a symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a 'bell shaped pattern' - within the center are the mean, median and mode.

Answer 169

Where there is a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end.

Answer 170

Where most of the distribution is concentrated to the left of the graph, the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak.

Answer 171

- The mode is always at the peak - The median is between the mode and the mean - The mean is dragged towards the 'tail' (long staggered bit)

Answer 172

A type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak - most distribution is concentrated to the right.

Answer 173

- Determines whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. - Determines whether likely caused by chance or variables

Answer 174

A statistical test used to analyze the difference in scores between related items Data should be nominal or better.

Answer 175

To determine whether the difference between scores is significant.

Answer 176

- Needs to be looking for difference, not association - Needs to have repeated measure design - Needs data to be nominal (organized into categories)

Answer 177

Refers to the likelihood that certain events will occur.

Answer 178

- **Null hypothesis** states there is no difference / association in the population - If we find a difference / association in the sample, can we say it is true for the population and can we accept an **alternative hypothesis**?

Answer 179

- 0.01 (1%) - They’d use this stricter significance level when there is a human cost involved (drug trials) or when there is no chance for the investigation to be repeated.

Answer 180

NO They may find statistical differences/associations but they can never find statistical certainties. (hence why they use suggest instead of proves)

Answer 181

The calculated value needs to be equal or lower to the critical value

Answer 182

- The number of participants (N) - Whether directional (one tailed) or not (two tailed) - The significance level - The S value

Answer 183

1) Subtract two opposing scores, if answer is negative add - and if answer positive add + 2) Add up the pluses and minuses, determining the numbers of each 3) Make the least frequent value the S number (if there were 7 pluses compared to 18 minuses, 7 is the S number) 4) Compare calculated value with critical value on the table using 0.05 5) If S (calculated) value is lower or equal to critical value, it is a statistically significant difference, if higher it is not statistically significant

Answer 184

The assessment of scientific work by other specialists in the field to ensure that research intended for publication is of high quality

Answer 185

In academic journals

Answer 186

Usually 2-3 experts in that particular field

Answer 187

- To allocate research funding Independent peer evaluation also occurs to decide whether or not to award funding to a project - To validate the quality and relevance of research All elements of research are assessed for quality and accuracy. - To suggest amendments or improvements They may suggest minor revisions to improve the report - in extreme circumstances they may conclude the work inappropriate for publication and should be withdrawn

Answer 188

- Allocate research funding - Validate quality and relevance of research - Suggest amendments or improvements

Answer 189

- Anonymity It is usual practise that the 'peer' doing the reviewing remains anonymous throughout the process to produce an honest appraisal. A minority, however, may use anonymity as a way of criticising rival researchers. This is made more likely by the fact that many researchers are in direct competition for limited research funding. For this reason, some journals favour a system of open reviewing whereby the reviewers names are made public - Publication bias It is a natural tendency for journals to want to publish 'headline-grabbing' findings to increase the credibility and circulation of their publication. The file drawer problem is an issue where they prefer to publish positive results. This could mean that research which does not meet these criteria are ignored or disregarded. Ultimately, this creates a false impression of psychology. - Burying ground-breaking research The peer review process may suppress opposition to mainstream theories, maintaining the status quo within particular scientific fields. Reviewers tend to be especially critical of research that contradicts their own view whilst favouring those that matches it. Established scientists are ones most likely to be chosen as peer-reviewers, particularly by prestigious journals and publishers. As a result, findings that chime with current opinion are more likely to be passed than new and innovative research that challenges order. So, peer review can have the effect of slowing down the rate of change in scientific disciplines.

Answer 190

The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services.

Answer 191

- Implications of PR on the economy is what we learn from the findings of psychological research influence, affect, benefit or devalue financial prosperity?

Answer 192

- Attachment research into the role of the father - The development of treatments for mental disorders.

Answer 193

- At the time of Bowlby, childcare was seen as a mothers responsibility alone, and the father was free to carry out his role as a provider. - More recent research suggests that the father may fulfil a qualitatively different role from the mother *which is no less valuable in the child's upbringing*. So psychological research has outlined that both parents are equally capable of providing emotional support necessary for healthy psychological development. - The consequence is that this can promote more flexible work arrangements. It is now the norm in many households that the female is the higher earner and works longer hours, whilst others can share childcare responsibilities across the working week. This means that modern parents are better equipped to maximize their income and contribute more effectively to the economy.

Answer 194

- Absence from work costs the economy 15B annually with 1/3 of all absences being caused by mild to moderate mental health disorders (depression, anxiety and stress). - Psychological research into causes and treatment for MH therefore has an impact on supporting a healthy workforce. - Many conditions are treated through the use of psychotherapeutic drugs such as SSRIs for depression and OCD. Anti-anxiety drugs can also be prescribed for stress conditions. Referrals can also be made by GPs for psychotherapies such as CBT and systematic desensitisation. - This means that, in many cases, people with mental health disorders are able to manage their conditions effectively and return to work. Therefore, the economic benefit of psychological research into disorders such as depression is considerable.

Answer 195

A mathematical technique measuring the relationship/association between 2 *continuous* variables **(co-variables)**.

Answer 196

Scattergrams

Answer 197

A numerical value between -1 and +1, known as the correlation co-efficient

Answer 198

- A numerical value between -1 and +1. - This value tells us the *strength* and *direction* of the relationship between co-variables.

Answer 199

A perfect *positive correlation*. - For a value of -1, this is the opposite - representing a perfect *negative correlation*.

Answer 200

- The closer the co-efficient to +1 or -1, the *stronger* the relationship between the co-variables is. - The closer to 0, the *weaker* the relationship is. - The sign indicates the direction.

Answer 201

- An in depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event. - These normally involve analysis of unusual individuals or events - however, CS can also concentrate on 'typical' cases, such as recollection of childhood.

Answer 202

- Usually produces *qualitative data*. - Researchers may construct a *case history* of the individual concerned using methods such as: interviews, observations, questionnaires or combinations. - It can produce *quantitative data* if case studies involve experimental or psychological testing to assess their capabilities. - Case studies can take place over a long period of time (being *longitudinal*), extending to gathering additional information/data from family and friends in addition to the individual themselves.

Answer 203

- Insights Case studies can produce rich, detailed insights that shed light on atypical forms of behaviour. This may be preferred to 'superficial' forms of data collected from experiment or questionnaires, for example. - Can contribute to understanding of 'typical functioning'. For example HM demonstrated typical memory processing - separating STM and LTM stores. This generated hypotheses for future studies and revision of entire theories. - Generalization issues due to sample size being small - Validity Information on final report can be based on subjective selection and interpretation of the researcher. This validity issue also can be applied to whether the personal accounts from the participant, family and friends are inaccurate from memory decay or desirability bias.

Answer 204

A research technique that enables the *indirect* study of behaviour through examining communications that people produce. (texts, emails, TV, film and other media).

Answer 205

- **Observational research**, people are studied indirectly.

Answer 206

- Content analysis studies a wide ranging forms of communication. - This ranges from spoken interaction, written forms or broader examples from the media.

Answer 207

- The aim of content analysis is to summarize and describe this communication in a systematic way so conclusions can be drawn.

Answer 208

- A stage of content analysis in which the communication to be studied is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories (words, sentences, phrases etc). - This can involve simply counting up the number of times a particular word or phrase appears in text to produce a form of quantitative data.

Answer 209

- A form of content analysis but the outcome is qualitative. - It's main process involves the identification of *themes*

Answer 210

- A *theme* refers to any idea, explicit or implicit, that is *recurrent*, for example it keeps 'cropping up' in the communication being studied.

Answer 211

- Thematic analysis involves *identification of themes* that are qualitative and more likely to be descriptive than coding units. - For instance, ideas can be identified and developed into broader categories. - Once the researcher is satisfied that themes they have developed cover all aspects of data, they may collect a new set of data to test the *validity* of the themes and categories. - Assuming these explain new data adequately, the researcher will write up the final report, including direct quotes from data to illustrate each theme.

Answer 212

- **Strengths** - Circumnavigates many ethical issues Much of the material a content analyst may want to study may already exists in the public domain. From this, there is no issues with obtaining consent or permission - High external validity Communications analysed are often high in external validity, as they are operating in a real life public setting, potentially offering high mundane realism. - Flexible Content analysis is flexible in the sense that it may produce both quantitative and qualitative data depending on the aims of research. - **Limitations** - Indirect studying People tend to be studied indirectly in content analysis so communications produced are usually analysed outside of the context within which it occurred. So, there is a danger that researchers may attribute opinions and motivations to the speaker or writer that were not intended originally. - Lack of objectivity Content analysis may have lack of objectivity, especially when more descriptive forms of thematic analysis are employed.

Answer 213

- Reliability refers to how *consistent* a measuring device is, in terms of findings or methodology.

Answer 214

- If the same result is produced on replication

Answer 215

- Test-retest reliability - Inter-observer reliability

Answer 216

A method of assessing reliability of a questionnaire, psychological test or interview by assessing the same person on two separate occasions

Answer 217

Shows to what extent the test (or other measure) produces the same answers or data - being consistent and reliable.

Answer 218

- It involves administering the same TEST or QUESTIONNAIRE to the same person (or people) on separate occasions - There must be sufficient time between the test and retest to ensure participants cannot recall their answers, BUT not too long for attitudes, opinions or abilities to change. - The two sets of scores would be *correlated* to ensure they're similar. The test will be reliable if the results obtained the same or similar outcomes and a correlation co-efficient of **+0.80** - If the correlation is significant or positive then the reliability of the measuring instrument is assumed to be good.

Answer 219

- Questionnaires - Psychological tests - Can be used in interviews

Answer 220

A method of assessing reliability that looks at the extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in an observation.

Answer 221

- Observational research (observations)

Answer 222

- One observers interpretation of events may differ from another's. - Inter-observer reliability reduces subjectivity, bias and unreliability of data collection

Answer 223

- Inter-observer reliability must be established using 2 or more observers - This may involve a small scale trial (pilot study) to check observers are applying **behavioural categories** in the same way - or a comparison may be reported at the end of the observational study. - Observers, during this, watch the same event BUT record data independently - Lastly, data collected should be correlated to assess its reliability

Answer 224

- Other forms of observation, such as **content analysis** (inter-rater reliability) as well as **interviews** (inter-interviewer reliability)

Answer 225

- Reliability is measured using **correlational analysis** - In both test-retest and inter-observer assessments, two sets of scores are correlated. - The **correlation coefficient** should exceed **+.80** to indicate reliability.

Answer 226

- Questionnaires - Interviews - Observations - Experiments

Answer 227

- If a questionnaire produces low test-retest reliability, it can be improved by some items being 'deselected' or rewritten. For example: some questions may be *complex* or *ambiguous*, so they will be interpreted differently by the same person on different occasions. In addition, open questions can be replaced with **closed, fixed choice alternatives** that are less ambiguous.

Answer 228

- Procedures should be the focus of reliability - In order to compare the performance of different participants and results from different studies, the procedures must be the same every time. So the solution is to use **standardized procedures**

Answer 229

- Use the same interviewers each time. - If this is not possible or practical, all interviewers should be trained. For instance, to ensure one particular interviewer is not asking questions that are too *ambiguous* or *leading*. - This is allowed in **structured interviews**, where the interviewers behaviour is more controlled by fixed questions. Interviews that are unstructured and free flowing are less likely to be reliable. - Solution: all interviewers trained to same standard, if same interviewer cannot be used and use structured interviews.

Answer 230

- Operationalize behavioral categories - Categories should not overlap and all possible behaviours should be covered on the checklist. - In addition, differing observers may need further training in utilizing behavioral categories and may wish to discuss their decisions with each other to apply categories more consistently.

Answer 231

- Internal validity - External validity - Temporal validity

Answer 232

The extent to which an observed effect is genuine - whether it is *measuring* what it intends to measure (internal validity) and the extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the research setting.

Answer 233

Whether the effects observed are due to manipulation of the IV and not some other factor.

Answer 234

Demand characteristics

Answer 235

External validity relates to factors outside the investigation, such as generalizing to other settings, other populations and other eras

Answer 236

- Ecological validity - Temporal validity

Answer 237

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings and situations.

Answer 238

- False! - This is a common misconception, if the task used to measure the independent variable in a lab is a task used in 'everyday life' - there will be *high mundane realism* and higher ecological validity.

Answer 239

- The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other historical times and eras. - For example, Asch's study can be accused of reflecting a highly conformist era in recent American history, producing low temporal validity.

Answer 240

- Face validity - Concurrent validity

Answer 241

- A way of assessing validity - It is a basic form of validity measuring in which a measure is scrutinized to determine whether it measures what it intends to measure. - This can be determined by simply observing a measuring instrument or passing it to an expert to check.

Answer 242

- A way of assessing validity - It is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing measure that is similar. - Concurrent validity is high when results obtained are close to or match those obtained from another recognized or well established test. - Close agreement between two sets of data indicate this (+.80)

Answer 243

When it exceeds +.80

Answer 244

- Experiments - Questionnaires - Qualitative research (case studies and interviews) - Observations

Answer 245

- Use a **control group**, so the researcher is better able to assess whether the DV change is the effect of the IV. - **Standardize procedures**, this minimizes the impact of participant reactivity and investigator effects on validity. - Use **Single-blind** and **double-blind** procedures, also decreasing participant reactivity and II.

Answer 246

- Researcher should demonstrate **interpretive validity** of their conclusions, this is the extent to which researchers interpretations of events matches that of the participants. - This is demonstrated through **coherence of narrative** and **direct quotes from participants** used in the report. - **Triangulation** enhances qualitative validity, which is using a number of different sources as evidence. - Despite this, qualitative research usually has the best ecological validity as it favors depth and detail to reflect a participants reality.

Answer 247

- Incorporate a **lie scale** - Questionnaires and psychological tests should incorporate this to assess consistency of the responses - also controlling for effects of *social desirability bias* - Ensuring participants **remain anonymous** can enhance questionnaire validity, also controlling for sdb.

Answer 248

- Minimal intervention from **covert** observations can produce high ecological validity. - *Covert* observations allows behaviour of those observed to remain natural and authentic if they are unaware. - **Behavioral categories** should NOT be broad, overlapping or ambiguous.

Answer 249

- Abstract - Introduction - Method - Results - Discussion - Referencing

Answer 250

- The first section in a psychological report or journal. - It is a summary of major elements: aims and hypotheses, methods, results and conclusions - It provides an overview of the entire report, and psychologists can read abstracts to identify studies for further examination

Answer 251

- A section of a report/journal that reviews previous research - detailing relevant theories and studies to provide *background information*. - It is structured like a **funnel** - following a logical progression. - It begins broadly and becomes more specific to lead to the *aims and hypotheses* of the current study.

Answer 252

- A description of what the researchers did including: design, sample, apparatus, materials, procedure and ethics. - This description has to be sufficiently **detailed** enough to allow someone else to replicate the study.

Answer 253

- A section including details/a description of what the researcher found, including *descriptive statistics* and *inferential statistics*. - If *qualitative methods* were used, the results/findings are likely to involve analysis of *themes and/or categories*. - Any raw data is disregarded here. and any calculations appear in the appendix rather than main body.

Answer 254

- A section where the researcher interprets the results of the study, considering what it tells us in terms of theory. - The researcher summarizes findings verbally, also making criticism of methodology used. - The researcher considers the wider implications of research - such as suggesting real world applications.

Answer 255

- An inclusion of a list of sources that were referred to or quoted - and their full detail.

Answer 256

- Format: author(s), date, article title, **journal name** (italics), volume (issue), page numbers. - For example: Gupta, S. (1991) Effects of time of day and personality on intelligence test scores. *Personality and Individual Differences*, 12(11), 1227-1231.

Answer 257

- Format: author(s), date, *title of book* (italics), place of publication, publisher. - For example: Skinner, B.F. (1953) *Science and Human Behaviour*. New York: Macmillan.

Answer 258

- Format: source, date, title, weblink and data accessed. - For example: NHS (2018) Phobias: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/phobias/ [Accessed May 2020].

Answer 259

- Paradigms and paradigm shifts - Theory construction and hypothesis testing - Falsifiability - Replicability - Objectivity and the empirical method

Answer 260

Where all sources of personal bias are minimized to not distort or influence the research process.

Answer 261

- Investigators should keep a 'critical' distance during research. - This means personal opinions or biases cannot 'discolour' the data they collect or influence the behaviour of participants they are studying. - The most objective methods are associated with the greatest level of control - such as lab experiments

Answer 262

A scientific approach based on gathering evidence through direct observation and experience.

Answer 263

- Objectivity is the basis of empirical method - Empirical methods emphasise the importance of data collection based on *direct, sensory* experience. - The experimental method and observational method are good examples of empirical method - John Locke was an empiricist who viewed that a theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified.

Answer 264

The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers

Answer 265

- Replicability is an important element of *Popper's* **hypothetico-deductive method**. - If a scientific theory is to be 'trusted', the findings from it must be shown to be repeatable across a number of different contexts and circumstances. - It has an important role in determining validity of a finding, and assessing it (as Popper said, repeating it over a number of different contexts) in order to see how findings can be *generalized*. - To make replicability possible, it is vital that investigations are reported with precision of rigour as possible, so they can verify their work and findings.

Answer 266

The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved false.

Answer 267

- Karl Popper argued falsifiability is a key criterion of scientific theory - Scientific theories should be able to have their hypotheses tested and have potential to be proven false. - If a scientific principle has been replicated, this does not necessarily make it true, it just has not been proven false. - This is called the **theory of falsification**. - If a theory does not allow being proven false, it can be considered a *pseudoscience*. - Theories we are yet to falsify are the strongest as even after rigorous research, it had not been proven false. This is why we put 'suggests' rather than 'proves'.

Answer 268

- The process of developing an explanation for the causes of behaviour by systematically gathering evidence and organising this into a coherent account (theory). - It occurs through gathering evidence via direct observation (EMPIRICAL METHOD :D)

Answer 269

A set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours.

Answer 270

- Hypothesis testing: a feature of a theory is that it should produce statements (hypotheses) which can then be tested - Hypotheses can be tested using systematic and objective methods to determine whether it can be supported or refuted. - If the hypothesis is structured around a pre-existing theory, the theory can be strengthened or contradicted - requiring revising. - A main process is **DEDUCTION**, which is the process of deriving new hypotheses from an existing theory.

Answer 271

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

Answer 272

Thomas Kuhn

Answer 273

- Kuhn suggested paradigms are what distinguishes scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines. - Natural sciences such as biology and physics have a shared set of assumptions and methods, such as core principles of evolution theory and standard model of the universe. They have a paradigm. - Social sciences apparently lack a universal paradigm (due to conflicting approaches and internal disagreement). So, psychology can be considered a 'pre-science'.

Answer 274

A paradigm shift is the result of a scientific revolution when there is a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.

Answer 275

- Kuhn suggested that progress within an established science occurs when there is a scientific revolution. - In this, a handful of researchers begin to question the accepted paradigm, and this critique gathers traction - so a paradigm shift occurs. - This occurs when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore. - For example: The change in the Newtonian paradigm in physics towards Einstein's theory of relativity.

Answer 276

- Extraneous variables - Confounding variables - Demand characteristics - Investigator effects - Randomization (to minimize effect of extraneous/confounding variables) - Standardization (so instructions do not act extraneously)

Answer 277

- Independent groups - Repeated measures - Matched pairs

Answer 278

- Laboratory experiments - Field experiments - Natural experiments - Quasi-experiments

Answer 279

- Idea of population, target population and sample. - Sampling techniques: Random sample, Systematic sample, Stratified sample, Opportunity sample and Volunteer sample

Answer 280

- Informed consent - How to deal w/ informed consent (consent form, parental consent, presumptive consent, prior-general consent, retrospective consent) - Deception - Protection from harm - How to deal w/ deception and protection from harm (debrief, right to withold data, counselling) - Privacy and confidentiality - How to deal w/ privacy and confidentiality (maintain anonymity, refer to participants as numbers or initials, reassuring data protection)

Answer 281

- What a pilot study is - Purpose of a pilot study - Single blind procedure - Double blind procedure

Answer 282

- Naturalistic and controlled observations - Covert and overt observations - Participant and non-participant observations

Answer 283

- Difference between structured and unstructured observation - Behavioural categories - What behavioural categories need to be: defined, observable (no inferences), measurable, non-overlapping. - Sampling *methods*: continuous recording for unstructured observations, time or event sampling for structured observations.

Answer 284

- **Questionnaires** - Open and closed questions + type of data each produces - **Interviews** - Structured interviews, semi-structured interviews, unstructured interviews.

Answer 285

- Designing questionnaires: Likert scales, rating scales, fixed-choice option (closed questionnaires). - Designing interviews: interview schedule, standardization. - Writing good questions: Overuse of jargon, emotive language and leading questions, double-barreled and double negatives.

Answer 286

- What correlations are - Types of correlation: positive, negative and zero. - Difference between correlations and experiments

Answer 287

- Qualitative data - Quantitative data - Primary data - Secondary data

Answer 288

- Mean - Median - Mode

Answer 289

- Range - Standard deviation

Answer 290

- Summarizing data in a table - Bar charts - Histograms - Scattergrams - Normal distributions - Skewed distributions

Answer 291

- Peer review - The aims of peer review - Evaluation of peer review: anonymity, publication bias and burying groundbreaking research. - Implications of psychological research on the economy - Attachment research into role of the father impact on economy - Development of treatments for mental disorders and the economy.

Answer 292

- Correlation coefficients (strength and direction between -1 to +1) - Positive correlations (nearer +1 ---> perfect positive is +1) - Negative correlations (nearer -1 ---> perfect negative is -1)

Answer 293

- What a case study is - How case studies are conducted (case history, longitudinal, gathering data from family and friends as well as individual, experimental testing for quantitative data) - Content analysis - Coding (initial stage of content analysis) and quantitative data - Thematic analysis and qualitative data (looking at recurrent themes)

Answer 294

- What reliability is - Ways of *assessing* reliability: Test-retest, Inter-observer reliability - *Measuring* reliability: Correlation co-efficients - *Improving* reliability for: questionnaires, interviews, experiments and observations.

Answer 295

- What validity is - Types of validity: internal validity, external validity, ecological validity, temporal validity. - Ways of *assessing* validity: face validity and concurrent validity - *Improving validity* for: experiments, questionnaires, observations and qualitative research (case studies and interviews).

Answer 296

- Looking for difference or correlation - What experimental design used? - What level of measurement used? (nominal, ordinal or interval).

Answer 297

- The null hypothesis - Levels of significance (0.05 - 5% meaning equal or less than 5% of population) - Calculated values are compared to critical values in table - Using tables of critical values: one tailed or two tailed? , number of participants in the study (N) ? , level of significance (P value). - Type I errors - Type II errors.

Answer 298

- Abstract - Introduction - Method - Results - Discussion - Referencing

Answer 299

- Paradigms and Paradigm shifts (Kuhn) - Theory construction and hypothesis testing - Falsifiability (Popper) - Replicability (Popper's hypothetico-deductive method) - Objectivity and the empirical method