Attachment Flashcards

Question

Outline Klaus Grossmans study into distinctive roles of the father.

Answer 1

LONGITUDINAL STUDY. Grossmann followed babies up into their adolescent years, looking at how both parents behavior and their relationships with the baby influenced the quality of attachments later in life. - Grossmann found that a quality of babies attachments with the mothers, NOT THE FATHERS, was related to attachment in adolescence. This suggests that the fathers role is less significant than a mothers. - However, Grossmann also found that the quality of the fathers play with the infant was related to adolescent attachments. This suggests that fathers do have a distinctive role, relating to play and stimulation as opposed to emotional development.

Answer 2

The fathers are able to adopt an emotional role typically associated with mothers.

Answer 3

- Field filmed 4-month old babies in face-to-face interactions with: Primary caregiver mothers Primary caregiver fathers Secondary caregiver fathers. - Primary caregiver fathers, like primary caregiver mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding babies compared to secondary caregiver fathers. This shows reciprocity and interactional synchrony.

Answer 4

- Vague research questions, lack of clarity over what is asked. ✘ One limitation of research into the role of the father is lack of clarity over the questions being asked. The question of 'what is the role of the father' in the context of attachment is more complicated than it sounds. Some researchers attempting to answer the question directly usually want to understand their role as *secondary attachment figures*. Others are concerned with the father as a *primary attachment figure*. The former tend to see fathers as behaving differently from mothers and having a distinct role whereas the latter have found that fathers can adopt a 'maternal' role. This makes it difficult to offer a simple answer as to 'role of the father' - it is really dependent on what specific role is being discussed. - Challenges to distinctive role: presence of lesbian and single mothers. ✘ A further limitation into the role of the father is that findings vary according to what methodology was used. Longitudinal studies such as Grossman et als has suggested fathers as secondary attachment figures have an important and distinctive role in a child's development, especially concerning play and stimulation. However, if fathers have a distinctive and important role we would expect children growing up in single-mother and lesbian-parent families to be different to those from two-parent heterosexual families. In fact, studies consistently show that these children do not develop differently from those in two-parent heterosexual families. This means that the question as to whether fathers have a distinctive role remains unanswered. - Counterpoint: lesbians and single mothers may fill in and account for role. ✔ In counterpoint, there can be explanations for this. It is suggested that fathers *do* take on distinctive roles in two-parent heterosexual families, but parents in single-mother and lesbian-parent families simply adapt to accommodate the role played by fathers. This means that the question of a distinctive role for fathers is clear after all. When present, fathers tend to adopt to a distinctive role, but families can adapt to not having a father. - Real world application: reassurance to families through advice. ✔ One strength of research into the role of the father is that it can be used to offer advice to parents. Parents and prospective parents sometimes agonize over decisions like who should take on the primary caregiver role. For some, this can even mean to stay at home due to stereotypical views of mothers' and fathers' roles. Equally, fathers may feel pressured to focus on work rather than parenting. In the modern day, this may not be economically the best solution due to differing incomes. Research into the role of the father can be used to offer reassuring advice to parents. For example: heterosexual parents can be informed that fathers are quite capable of becoming primary attachment figures. Also, for lesbian-parent and single-mother families, they can be informed that not having a father around does not affect a child's development. This means that parental anxiety about the role of the father can be reduced.

Answer 5

Harlow and Lorenz.

Answer 6

- Imprinting - The critical period - Sexual imprinting.

Answer 7

Lorenz randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs in a classic experiment. Half of the clutch were hatched with their mother, the other half were incubated where the first moving object they saw was him

Answer 8

- The incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere - The control group, hatched in the presence of their mother followed her. - When the two groups were mixed, the control group still followed the mother whereas the experimental group followed Lorenz.

Answer 9

Imprinting, regarding geese, is where birds that are mobile from birth will follow the first moving object they see upon hatching.

Answer 10

The idea that attachment has to form within a certain time scale, or it will never happen :( Lorenz found that if imprinting does not occur within the critical period, chicks did not attach themselves to a mother figure.

Answer 11

The concept that there is a relationship between imprinting and adult mate preferences.

Answer 12

- Peacock that had been reared in a zoos reptile house. The first moving object the peacock saw when hatching were giant tortoises. As an adult the peacock would only direct courtship behavior to giant tortoises. Lorenz concluded that this meant the peacock had undergone sexual imprinting.

Answer 13

- Harlow had observed that newborns kept alone in a bare cage often died, however, they usually survived if provided with something soft like a cloth to cuddle. The procedure: Harlow reared 16 baby monkeys using two models. There was a plain wire 'mother' that provided milk and a clothed 'mother' that dispensed milk depending on what was being tested.

Answer 14

- The monkeys displayed a clear preference to the cloth mother, seeking comfort from them when frightened. (Harlow had presented a noisy mechanical teddy bear) - This applied regardless if the cloth mother dispensed milk or not. - This demonstrates how, to monkeys, comfort was more important to the monkeys than food when it came to attachment.

Answer 15

- Monkeys reared with plain-wire mothers only were the most dysfunctional - The monkey group overall did not develop normal social behaviour. The monkeys were more aggressive and less sociable than other monkeys. - The monkeys bred less due to being unskilled in mating, in the event where they became mothers, some neglected or attacked their children.

Answer 16

90 days for attachment to form

Answer 17

- Research support (ducks) ✔ One strength of Lorenz's research is the existence of support for the concept of imprinting. A study support's Lorenz's idea of imprinting. Chicks were exposed to simple shape combinations that moved, such as a triangle with a rectangle in front. A range of shape combinations were then moved in front of them and they followed the original most closely. This supports the view that young animals are born with innate mechanisms to imprint on a moving object present in the critical window of development, as predicted by Lorenz. - Generalizability to humans ✘ One limitation of Lorenz's studies is the ability to generalize findings and conclusions from birds to humans. The mammalian attachment system is quite different and more complex than that in birds. For example, attachment in mammals undergoes a two-way process, so not just the young become attached to their mothers - the mammalian mothers also show an emotional attachment to their young. This means that it is probably not appropriate to generalize Lorenz's ideas to humans.

Answer 18

- Real world value (Harlow) ✔ One strength of Harlow's research is its important real-world applications. For example, it has helped some social workers and clinical psychologists to understand that a lack of bonding experience may be a risk factor in child development, allowing them to intervene to prevent poor outcomes. We also now understand the importance of attachment figures for baby monkeys, and mammals, in zoos and breeding programs in the wild. This means that the value of Harlow's research is not just theoretical, it is also practical. - Generalizability to humans One limitation of Harlow's research is the ability to generalize findings and conclusions from monkeys to humans. Rhesus monkeys are much more similar to humans than Lorenz's geese, and all mammals share some common attachment behaviours. Despite this, the human brain and behavior is still more complex than that of monkeys. This means it may not be appropriate to generalize Harlow's findings to humans.

Answer 19

A theory based on the behaviorist approach. The learning theory emphasizes learning in the formation of behavior.

Answer 20

Attachment behaviours can be formed from classical and operant conditioning.

Answer 21

Where the importance of the attachment figure is surrounding the role as a food provider. (Proposes that children learn to love whoever feeds them)

Answer 22

- Unconditioned stimulus → unconditioned response. - Neutral stimulus → No response - Unconditioned + neutral stimulus → unconditioned response - Conditioned stimulus → conditioned response.

Answer 23

- Food is an unconditioned stimulus, creating an unconditioned response of pleasure in the baby. - The caregiver begins as a neutral stimulus, prompting no response initially. - When the caregiver provides food, over time the baby associates the caregiver with the satiation of hunger. - From this, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus. - Once conditioning occurs, the caregiver will produce a conditioned response in the infant of pleasure / love.

Answer 24

Classical conditioning is learning through associating two stimuli together to produce a conditioned response.

Answer 25

Operant conditioning involves learning from consequence. If behavior produces a pleasant consequence, it is more likely to be repeated again - known as being REINFORCED.

Answer 26

- Drive reduction comes into play. - Hunger is a primary drive, we are motivated to eat to satiate and reduce the hunger drive. - Psychologists believe that as caregivers provide food, the drive of hunger becomes generalised to them. - Attachment is this a secondary drive, learned by association with the caregiver and satisfaction of a primary drive.

Answer 27

- Babies will cry, leading to a response from the caregiver such as feeding. As long as the caregiver gives the correct response, crying is reinforced.

Answer 28

- Caregivers will respond to a babies cry for comfort, leading to a response from the caregiver to pacify the crying. This is NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT.

Answer 29

- Counter evidence from Harlow's monkeys (Comfort > Food) ✘ One limitation of learning theory explanations for attachment is lack of support from studies conducted on animals. Lorenz geese, for example, imprinted on the first moving object seen, regardless of whether this object was associated with food. Also, if we consider Harlow's research on monkeys, there is no support of the importance of food. When given a choice, Harlow's monkeys displayed attachment behavior towards a soft surrogate 'mother' in preference to a wire one that provided milk. This shows that factors other than association with food are important with the formation of attachment. - Counter evidence from human studies ✘ A further limitation of learning theory explanations is lack of support from studies of human babies. Schaffer and Emerson found that babies tended to form their main attachment to their mother regardless of whether she was the one who usually fed them. In another study, Isabella et al. found that high levels of interactional synchrony predicted the quality of attachment. These factors are unrelated to feeding. This, again, suggests that food is not the main factor in the formation of human attachments. - Conditioning may play a role (However, not with food but rather with feeling comforted) ✔ One strength of learning theory is that elements of conditioning could be involved in some aspects of attachment. It seems unlikely that association with food plays a central role in attachment, but conditioning may play a role. For example, a baby may associate the feeling of warmth and comfort with the presence of a particular adult, and this may influence a baby's choice of their main attachment figure. This means that learning theory may still be useful in understanding the development of attachments. - Counterpoint: active role A counterpoint to this is that both classical and operant conditioning explanations see the baby playing a relatively passive role in attachment development, responding to associations with comfort or reward. Against this, however, is research showing that babies take a very active role in the interactions that produce attachment, outlined by Feldman and Eidelman as part of reciprocity. This means that conditioning may not be an adequate explanation of any aspect of attachment.

Answer 30

Yes ! Mutual reinforcement strengthens an attachment.

Answer 31

Proposed by Bowlby, monotropy is the emphasis that a singular specific attachment is different from others and is of central importance in child development.

Answer 32

- The law of continuity - The law of accumulated separation

Answer 33

The more constant and predictable a child's care, the better quality their attachment.

Answer 34

The effects of every separation with the mother adds up and the 'safest dose' is 'zero dose'.

Answer 35

- He placed great emphasis on a child's attachment to ONE particular caregiver. - He believed that the child's to this singular caregiver is different and more important than the others.

Answer 36

- A innate set of behaviors babies are born with to encourage attention from adults (example: cooing, gripping and smiling). - Their purpose is to initiate adult social interaction, thus creating attachment in the adult towards the baby.

Answer 37

YES! Attachment is a reciprocal process. Both mother and baby are hardwired to become attached.

Answer 38

6 months (the child is maximally sensitive at 6 months when the infants attachment system is active)

Answer 39

A child will find it difficult to form a relationship later, or they will never be able to form one at all.

Answer 40

A child’s mental representation of their relationship with their primary attachment figure, providing a model of what relationships are like in the future.

Answer 41

- Monotropism + principals - Social releasers - The critical period - Internal working model.

Answer 42

- Case study contradiction. (The study of the Czech twins who were once thought to be disabled due to severe abuse and missing the CRITICAL PERIOD went on to form functional adult relationships and operate normally) - Schaffer and Emerson counterevidence. One limitation of Bowlby's theory is that the concept of monotropy lacks validity. Schaffer and Emerson found that although most babies did attach to one person at first, a significant minority formed multiple attachments at the same time as specific attachment (27%). Also, although the first attachment does appear to have a particularly strong influence on later behaviour, this may just be *stronger*, not necessarily *different* in quality from the child's other attachment. For example: other attachments to family members provide all the same key qualities (emotional support, a safe base) . This means that Bowlby may be incorrect that there is a unique quality and importance to the child's primary attachment. - Support for social releasers. One strength of Bowlby's theory is the evidence supporting the role of social releasers. There is clear evidence that 'cute' baby behaviours are designed to elicit interactions from caregivers. Babies were observed triggering interactions with adults using social releasers. The researchers then instructed the babies primary attachment figures to ignore the babies social releasers and display an expressionless face. Babies, who were previously normally responsive) became increasingly distressed and some eventually curled up and lay motionless. This illustrates the role of social releasers in emotional development and suggests that they are important in the process of attachment development. - Support for the internal working model. A further strength of Bowlby's theory is support for the internal working model. The idea of the internal working model predicts that patterns of attachment will be passed from one generation to the next. A study of 99 mothers assessed attachment relationships with their one year old babies. The researchers measured the the mother's attachment to their own primary attachment figure (their parent), and also assessed the attachment quality of the babies. They found that mothers with poor attachment to their own primary attachment figures were more likely to have poorly attached babies. This supports Bowlby's ideas that mothers' ability to form attachments to their babies is influenced by their internal working models (which in turn comes from their own early attachment experiences)

Answer 43

- Secure attachment. - Insecure-resistant attachment - Insecure-avoidant attachment.

Answer 44

Ainsworth.

Answer 45

A controlled observation designed to measure the security of attachment in babies.

Answer 46

It was located in a highly controlled lab with a two way mirror and/or cameras from which the psychologists could observe the baby. The room was filled with toys.

Answer 47

- Proximity seeking - Exploration and secure base behaviour. - Stranger anxiety - Separation anxiety - Response to reunion.

Answer 48

1) The child and caregiver enter an unfamiliar room. 2) The child is encouraged to explore 3) A stranger comes in and attempts to interact with the child 4) The caregiver leaves the child and the stranger together. 5) The caregiver returns and the stranger leaves. 6) The caregiver leaves the child alone. 7) The stranger returns 8) The caregiver returns and is reunited with the child.

Answer 49

- The babies explore happily but regularly return to the caregiver. - Moderate separation distress. - Moderate stranger anxiety. - Require and accept comfort easily from CG upon reunion.

Answer 50

- Babies explore freely. - Low proximity seeking. - Low safe base behaviour - Low separation anxiety - Low stranger anxiety - Little effort to make contact upon reunion.

Answer 51

- Seek greater proximity - Low exploration - High secure base behaviour - High stranger anxiety - High separation anxiety - Resists comfort upon reunion, being unable to be consoled.

Answer 52

- Good predictive validity. One strength of the Strange Situation is that its outcome predicts a number of aspects of a babies later development. A large body of research has shown that babies and toddlers assessed as Type B (secure) tend to have better outcomes than others, both in later childhood and adulthood. In childhood, this includes better achievement in school and less involvement in bullying. Securely attached babies also tend to go on and have better mental health in adulthood. Those babies assessed as having insecure-resistant attachment - and those not falling into Types A, B and C tend to have the worst outcomes. This suggests that the Strange Situation measures something real and meaningful in a baby's development, having good predictive validity! - Cultural bias One limitation of the Strange Situation is that it may not be a valid measure of attachment in different cultural contexts. The Strange Situation was developed from British and US contexts. It may be culture-bound - so it is only valid for use in certain cultures. One reason for this is that babies have different experiences in different cultures, and these experiences may affect their responses to the Strange Situation. For example, in one Japanese study, babies displayed very high levels of separation anxiety and so a disproportionate number of infants were classified as insecure-resistant. It was suggested that this anxiety response was not due to high rates of attachment insecurity but to the unusual nature of the experience in Japan where mother-baby separation is very rare. This means that it is very difficult to know what the Strange Situation is measuring when used outside Europe and the US. - Another attachment type? (Does not account for infants who deviate from the three categories) DISORGANISED! - Inter-rater reliability. A further strength of the strange situation is good **inter-rater reliability**. Inter-rater reliability for the Strange Situation for a team of trained observers found agreement on attachment type in 94% of cases. This high level of reliability may be because the procedure takes place under controlled conditions and because behaviours (behavioural categories) such as proximity seeking and stranger anxiety involve large movements and are therefore easy to observe. For example, anxious babies cry and crawl away from strangers. This means that we can be confident that attachment type as assessed by the Strange Situation does not depend on subjective judgements.

Answer 53

van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg.

Answer 54

- 32 studies of attachment over 8 countries ! 15 were in the US - Yielded results for 1990 children.

Answer 55

- In all countries secure attachment was the most common classification. - 75% were secure in Britain compared to 50% in China.

Answer 56

- In individualist cultures, rates of insecure-resistant attachment were similar to Ainsworths original study. - In collectivist cultures, rates of insecure- resistant attachment were higher than 25% In addition, insecure-avoidant types saw a reduction.

Answer 57

- Variations are larger WITHIN cultures, being 150% higher than those between countries. - For example: in the US one sample size produced 46% securely attached while another sample produced as high as 90% securely attached.

Answer 58

- An Italian study by Simonelli - A Korean study by Mi Kyoung Jin.

Answer 59

Conducted a study in Italy to see whether proportions matched Ainsworths strange situation. - Assessed 78 babies aged 12 months using the strange situation. - 50% were secure. - 36% insecure-avoidant. This is a lower rate of secure attachment and a higher rate of insecure attachment compared to other studies. It is suggested that this is attributed to mothers working longer hours and using professional childcare. ! This shows that patterns of attachment type are not static, instead varying with cultural change.

Answer 60

Mi Kyoung Jin compared the proportion of Korean attachment types to other studies. - The strange situation was used to assess 87 babies. - The overall proportions of insecure and secure babies were similar to those in most countries, with most babies being secure. - Most babies who were insecure here were RESISTANT, only 1 was avoidant. This distribution is similar to Japan, according to IJzendoorn due to the two countries having similar child rearing styles.

Answer 61

- Secure attachment is the norm in a wide range of cultures. - This supports Bowlby’s theory that attachment is innate and universal. - However, cultural practises DO have an influence on attachment type.

Answer 62

- Indigenous researchers. One strength of cultural variations research is that most of the studies were conducted by indigenous researchers. Indigenous psychologists are those from the same cultural background as the participants. For example: Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg included research from a German team (Grossmann) and Takahashi, who is Japanese. This form of research means that many of the potential problems in cross-cultural research can be avoided, such as misinterpretation of the language used by participants and difficulty communicating instructions to them. Difficulties can also include bias because one nation's stereotypes of another. This means that there is an excellent chance that researchers and participants communicated successfully - enhancing the *validity* of data collected. - Stereotype bias (Some studies such as Tronick and Morelli’s look at cultures outside of their own, creating more difficulty bias and cross-cultural communication) - Confounding variables. One limitation of cross-cultural research, including meta-analyses of patterns of attachment types, is the impact of *confounding variables* in findings. Studies conducted in different countries aren't usually matched for methodology when they are compared in reviews or meta-analyses. Sample characteristics such as poverty, social class and urban/rural makeup can confound results as can the age of participants studied in different countries. Environmental variables might also differ between studies and confound results. For example, the size of the room and availability of interesting toys there - babies might appear to explore more in studies conducted in small rooms with attractive toys compared to large, bare rooms. Less visible proximity-seeking due to these environmental factors might make a child more likely to be classified as avoidant. This means that looking at attachment behaviour in different non-matched studies conducted in different nations may actually not tell us anything about cross-cultural patterns of attachment. - Imposed etic. A further limitation of cross-cultural research on attachment is that it is trying to impose a test designed for one cultural context to another context. Cross-cultural psychology considers the ideas of emic (cultural uniqueness) and etic (cross-cultural universality). *Imposed etic* occurs when we assume an idea or technique that works in one cultural context will work in another. An example of this is in attachment research is in the use of babies response to reunion with the caregiver in the Strange Situation. In Britain and the US, lack of affection on reunion may indicate an avoidant attachment. However, in Germany, such behaviour would likely be interpreted as independence rather than insecurity. Therefore, that part of the Strange Situation may not operate universally. This means that behaviours measured by the Strange Situation may not have the same meanings in different cultural contexts, and comparing these across cultures is meaningless.

Answer 63

- Separation is the child not being in the presence of their PAF. - Deprivation is where the child is deprived of emotional care from their PAF. Brief instances where the child is with a substitute CG who can provide emotional care is not significant. HOWEVER, extended separation can lead to deprivation and causes harm.

Answer 64

The first two-and-a-half years of life. However, this continues to have a risk until the age of 5.

Answer 65

William Goldfarb.

Answer 66

- Intellectual development - Emotional development

Answer 67

He found lower IQ in children who remained in institutions as opposed to those who were fostered and thus had a higher standard of emotional care.

Answer 68

It can lead to affectionless psychopathy, having an inability to experience guilt or strong emotion towards others.

Answer 69

The link between affectionless psychopathy and maternal deprivation.

Answer 70

He studied 44 adolescent teenagers accused of stealing. They were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy. Their families were also interviewed to establish whether they experienced prolonged early separation from their mothers. The sample was compared to a control group of 44 non-criminal but emotionally disturbed adolescents.

Answer 71

- 14/44 thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths with 12 of these experiencing prolonged separation with their mothers before the age of 2. - In contrast, only 4 of the remaining 30 thieves had experienced separations. - Only 2 participants in the control group had experienced long term separation. - Bowlby concluded that prolonged early separation/deprivation caused affectionless psychopathy.

Answer 72

- Flawed evidence One limitation of the theory of maternal deprivation is the poor quality of the evidence it is based on. Bowlby's 44 thieves study is flawed because it was Bowlby himself who conducted both the family interviews and assessments for affectionless psychopathy. This left him open to bias, as he knew in advance which teenagers he expected to show for signs of psychopathy. Other sources of evidence were equally flawed. For example, Bowlby was also influenced by the findings of Goldfarb's research on the development of deprived children in *wartime orphanages*. This study has problems of *confounding variables* because the children in Goldfarb's study had experienced early trauma and institutional care as well as prolonged separation from their primary caregivers. This means that Bowlby's original sources of evidence for maternal deprivation had serious flaws and would not be taken as valid evidence in modern times. - Research support COUNTERPOINT In counterpoint to criticism of Bowlby's individual and cited research, there is modest research support for the idea of maternal deprivation having long-term effects. A study on baby rats outlined that separating baby rats from their mother for as little as 1 day had a permanent effect on their social development, though not other aspects of development. This asserts that there, in fact, maternal deprivation still exerts an effect on development despite a background of confounded information. So, in conclusion, although Bowlby relied on flawed evidence to support the theory of maternal deprivation, there are other sources of evidence for his ideas. - Deprivation vs privation Another limitation of Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation is his confusion between different forms of early experience. An important distinction between two types of early negative experience was drawn. Deprivation strictly refers to the loss of the primary attachment figure after attachment has developed. On the other hand, privation is the failure to form any attachment in the first place - this may take place when the children are brought up in institutional care. It was identified that severe long-term damage that Bowlby associated with deprivation is actually more likely to be the result of privation. So, the children studied also by Goldfarb may have actually been 'prived' rather than deprived. Similarly, many children of the 44 thieves study had disrupted early lives - and may have never formed strong attachments. This means that Bowlby may have overestimated the seriousness of the effects of deprivation in children's development. - Opposing evidence to critical period. A further limitation of the theory of maternal deprivation is Bowlby's idea of a critical period. For Bowlby, damage was inevitable if a child had not formed an attachment in the first *two and a half* years of life. Hence, this is a critical period. Despite this, there is evidence to suggest that, in many cases, good quality aftercare can prevent most damage. A case on Czech twins was reported, suggesting this. The Czech twins experienced very severe physical and emotional abuse from the age of 18 months old until the age of 7. Although they were severely damaged emotionally by their experience, they received excellent care and by their teens they were considered to have recovered fully. This means that lasting harm is, in fact, not inevitable even in cases of severe privation. The 'critical period' is therefore better regarded as a 'sensitive period'.

Answer 73

- Rutter ERA study. - Zeanah BEI study.

Answer 74

- Followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans longitudinally as part of the English and Romanian adoptee (ERA) study. - He aimed to investigate the extent to which good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions - He measured PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE and EMOTIONAL development was measured in children aged 4, 6, 11, 15 and 22-25 years old. - A group of 52 children from the UK adopted at the same time were used as a control group.

Answer 75

- When children first arrived, 1/2 of adoptees displayed signs of delayed intellectual development. - At age 11, the adopted children showed differential rates of recovery relating to their age of adoption. - Mean IQ of before 6 months: 102 - Mean IQ of 6M-2Y: 86 - Mean IQ of 2Y+: 77. - These differences remained at age 16. - Children adopted after 6 months displayed disinhibited attachment.

Answer 76

It is an attachment disorder that is characterised by attention seeking symptoms, clinginess and inappropriate social behaviour directed indiscriminately towards all adults (familiar or unfamiliar) - Children adopted before 6 months barely showed this.

Answer 77

- Zeanah conducted the Bucharest Early Intervention project which assessed Romanian infants aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their life in institutional care. - They were compared to a control group of 50 children who had never lived in an institution. - Attachment type was measured using the strange situation. - Adopters were also asked about unusual social behavior that could indicate disinhibited attachment.

Answer 78

- 74% of the control group were classed as securely attached. - Only 19% of the institutional group were classed as securely attached. - Disinhibited attachment applied to 44% of those who had lived in institutions (almost HALF!)

Answer 79

- Disinhibited attachment. Being equally friendly and affectionate to strangers and familiars alike. This is highly unusual behavior regarding attachment as many children show stranger anxiety. - Intellectual disability. Institutionalization can impair intellectual development, as seen in Rutter's study where most children upon arrival displayed signs of this.

Answer 80

- A child experiencing a high turnover rate of staff, leads to the adaptation of disinhibited attachment

Answer 81

Yes, in Rutter's study most children showed symptoms of intellectual impairment when they first arrived. However, most of those adopted before 6 months had caught up with the control group by age 4.

Answer 82

The infant's mental representation of their first attachment serves as a template for future childhood and adult relationships. For example, a baby whos first experience was of a loving relationship, they will assume that this is how relationships are meant to work in the real world and bring these qualities to future relationships.

Answer 83

- Secure: seek out functional relationships and behave functionally in them. - Avoidant: being uninvolved and struggling with intimacy. - Resistant: problems maintaining relationships.

Answer 84

Wilson and Smith.

Answer 85

- Assessed attachment type and bullying behavior in 196 children aged 7-11 from London using standard questionnaires. - Secure children were unlikely to be involved - Resistant children were most likely to bully. - Avoidant children were most likely to be victims.

Answer 86

- Romantic relationships - Parental relationships

Answer 87

- Hazan and Shaver - McCarthy

Answer 88

- Hazan and Shaver carried out a classic study of the association between attachments and adult relationships. - 260 replies to a 'Love Quiz' published in a newspaper were analyzed based on their response to questions concerning current relationship, general love experience and personal feelings. - 56% of respondents were securely attached - 25% were insecure-avoidant - 19% were insecure-resistant - Those reporting secure attachments were most likely to have good and longer-lasting romantic experiences - Avoidant types were more likely to report jealousy and fear of intimacy. ! These findings suggest that patterns of attachment behavior are reflected in romantic relationships.

Answer 89

- McCarthy studied 40 adult women who had been assessed when they were babies to establish their early attachment type. - Those assessed as secure had the best adult friendships - Those assessed as avoidant struggled with romantic intimacy - Those assessed as resistant had difficulty maintaining friendships.

Answer 90

- Heidi Bailey used the strange situation to assess attachment type in 99 mothers and their one year old babies. - The researchers measured the mothers attachment to their own primary attachment figure. - They also looked at the attachment type in the babies. - It was found that mothers with poor attachment quality to their PAF were more likely to have children with poor attachment quality. This supports the internal working model.

Answer 91

- Research support. (Psychologists, from analysis, have concluded that early attachment consistently predicts later attachment, emotional wellbeing and attachment to their own child - showing patterns for future behaviors in these children) - Retrospective studies. (Most research is not longitudinal, instead being based on questions surrounding relationships to measure attachment. This makes it had to distinguish whether adult or child attachment is being measured and it can be confounded.) - Confounding variables. (Although some studies do include assessment in infancy, such as McCarthy's, they do not account for confounding variables such as parenting style and genetics that influence attachments.) - Practical application. (Understanding the internal working model allows people to have guidance on how to interact with their child to reduce the chance of insecure attachments forming)

Answer 92

- Real world application One strength of the Romanian orphanage studies is their application to improve conditions for children growing up outside their family home. The study of Romanian orphans has improved psychologists understanding of the effects of early institutional care, and how to prevent the worst of these effects. This has led to improvements in conditions experienced by looked-after children, such as those growing up in the care system. An example of improvements are children's homes now avoiding having large numbers of caregivers for each child. Instead, the children tend to have one or two 'key-workers' who play a central role in their emotional care. Also, institutional care is now seen as an undesirable option for 'looked-after' children. Considerable effort is now made to accommodate such children in foster care or to have them adopted instead. This means that children in institutional care have a chance to develop normal attachments, so disinhibited attachment is avoided. - Fewer confounding variables Another strength of the Romanian orphan studies is lack of *confounding variables*. There were many orphan studies before the Romanian orphans became available to study - such as orphans from WW2 studied. Many children previously studied in orphanages had varying degrees of trauma, which were difficult to disentangle the effects of neglect, physical abuse and bereavement from those of institutional care. However, the strength of the Romanian children studies are that children from these orphanages, in main, had been handed over by loving parents who could not afford to keep them. This means that the results were much less likely to be confounded by other negative early experiences. As a result, the studies can be considered to have high internal validity. - Unique conditions COUNTERPOINT In counterpoint to claiming the studies to have high internal validity, yet there are alternate factors to be considered. Studying children from Romanian orphanages might have introduced different confounding variables. The quality of care in these institutions was remarkably poor, with children receiving very little intellectual stimulation or comfort. This means that the harmful effects seen in studies of Romanian orphans may represent the effects of poor institutional care rather than simply being in institutional care, per se. - Lack of adult data One limitation of the Romanian orphanage studies is the current lack of data on adult development. The latest data from the ERA (English and Romanian adoptee Rutter) study. The latest data from the ERA Study looked at the children in their early- to mid- 20s. This means that we do not currently have data to answer some of the most interesting research questions concerning the long-term impacts of early institutional care. These research questions include the lifetime prevalence of mental health problems and participants success in forming and maintaining adult romantic and parental relationships. It will take a long time to gather this data due to the *longitudinal* design of the study. This means it will be some time before we know more completely what the long-term effects are for Romanian orphans. It is possible that the late-adopted children may 'catch-up'.

Answer 93

- **Reciprocity** - Includes: definition, *alert phases* and *active involvement*. - **Interactional synchrony** - Includes: Meltzoff and Moores study on synchrony (when it begins) and the importance of synchrony of attachment studied by Isabella et al.

Answer 94

- Schaffer and Emerson's research on Glaswegian infants. - Stage 1: asocial stage (first 3 weeks) - Stage 2: indiscriminate attachment (2-7 months) - Stage 3: specific attachment (7 months+) - Stage 4: multiple attachments

Answer 95

- Schaffer and Emerson's research into attachment to fathers. - Grossman's *longitudinal* study into whether fathers have distinctive roles. - Fathers as secondary or primary attachment figures conducted by Tiffany Field.

Answer 96

- Lorenz's geese research - Includes: imprinting, Lorenz's procedure and findings, the critical period for geese, and sexual imprinting casestudy on peacock. - Harlow's monkey research - Includes: Harlow's procedure and findings (showing 'contact comfort' was more important than food), the outcomes for maternally deprived monkeys as adults, how this supports the critical period (90 days for monkeys).

Answer 97

- Learning theory explanation - How classical conditioning plays a role in attachment - How operant conditioning plays a role in attachment - Attachment as a secondary drive.

Answer 98

- Concept of monotropy - *The law of continuity* - *The law of accumulated separation* - Social releasers - The critical period that is maximally sensitive at 6 months - Role of the internal working model

Answer 99

- The strange situation procedure - The 5 behaviours monitored in the strange situation: proximity seeking, exploration and secure base behaviour, stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, response to reunion. - Findings showing types of attachment - Secure attachment (Type B) - 60-75% - Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A) - 20-25% - Insecure-resistant attachment (Type C) - 3%

Answer 100

- Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis (32 studies of Strange Situation) - Italian study by Simonelli (other studies of cultural variation) - Korean study by Mi Kyoung Jin (other studies of cultural variation) - Conclusions from cross-cultural studies.

Answer 101

- Maternal deprivation theory: having a impact on emotional and intellectual development - Separation versus deprivation - The critical period: first 2 1/2 years of life, with continuing risk up to the age of 5. - Goldfarb's study outlining how maternal deprivation has an effect on IQ - Bowlby's 44 thieves study outlining how maternal deprivation affects emotional development - Bowlby's 44 thieves study procedure and findings.

Answer 102

- Rutter et al. research and findings - Zeanah et al. research and findings - Effects of institutionalisation - This includes: disinhibited attachment and intellectual disability.