Memory Flashcards

Question

How does information pass from the sensory register to the STM?

Answer 1

Information only passes further if you pay attention to it. (Attention is a key process)

Answer 2

Mainly acoustically.

Answer 3

Around 18 seconds, unless rehearsed. This means that STM is more of a temporary store.

Answer 4

When we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves over and over again. We can keep information in our STMs as long as we rehearse it. If we rehearse it long enough, it passes into LTM.

Answer 5

Mostly semantically.

Answer 6

Potentially up to a lifetime.

Answer 7

RETRIEVAL. The LTM has to transfer the material back into the STM via a process known as retrieval.

Answer 8

- Research support. As studied earlier, Alan Baddeley found that we tend to mix up words that are acoustically similar when we are using our STMs. When using our LTM, Baddeley found that we mix up semantically similar words This study shows clearly how STM and LTM are separate memory stores - confirming this part of the MSM. - Potential for the existence of more than one STM store. This is proved by the case study of a client (KF) with amnesia. KF's STM for digits was very poor when they were read out loud to him. When he read the digits to himself his recall was much better. This evidence suggests that the MSM is wrong in claiming that there is only one STM store that processes all types of information received from the sensory register. - Elaborative rehearsal. Another limitation is that prolonged rehearsal is not needed for transfer to LTM. According to the MSM, what matters about rehearsal is the amount of it - the more something is rehearsed, the more likely it is to transfer into the LTM. The idea of elaborative rehearsal undermines this. Elaborative rehearsal is needed for long term storage. This occurs when you link information to your existing knowledge, or you think about what it means. This means that information can be transferred to LTM without prolonged rehearsal. This suggests that the MSM does not fully explain how long-term storage is achieved. - Oversimplification of stores The MSM is based on research from the time that supported the LTM and STM being separated and independent from each other. There is research now that suggests that LTM and STM is more complex than a singular store. For example, current research suggests we have one LTM store for semantic memory (facts) and another for procedural (like riding a bike). This is combined with research for separate STM stores and more than one type of rehearsal, the MSM may be too simplistic to explain how memory works.

Answer 9

Where you link the information to existing knowledge, or think about the meaning of it.

Answer 10

A long term memory store for personal events. These include memories of when the events occurred and the people, objects, locations and behaviors involved. Memories of these have to be retrieved consciously and with effort.

Answer 11

A long term memory store for our knowledge and comprehension. This includes facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts mean. Like episodic memory, these need to be recalled deliberately.

Answer 12

A long term memory store for our knowledge of how to do things. This includes our memories of learned skills. These are hard to describe and we usually recall these memories without making a deliberate or conscious effort.

Answer 13

- Episodic memory - Semantic memory - Procedural memory

Answer 14

- They are complex (memories are interwoven to produce single one) - They are time-stamped. - They will contain several elements (people, place, objects etc..) - You have to make a conscious and deliberate effort to recall these. - More prone to being distorted and forgotten.

Answer 15

- They are NOT time stamped. - Less personal and more about facts we share collectively. - Is constantly being added to - Less prone to distortion and forgetting

Answer 16

- We can recall these without conscious effort eventually - It is hard to explain to someone else.

Answer 17

- Clinical evidence. Clive Wearing demonstrated how there are different types of LTM due to behaviors exhibited from his amnesia. Wearing's episodic memory was heavily impaired by his amnesia, however, his semantic memory remained mainly unaffected. Clive maintained his procedural memory, still being able to read music, sing and play piano - despite this, he did not have the episodic ability to recall things that were said to him a short time before. - Real-world application. Understanding different types of LTM allows psychologists to formulate treatments for those impacted by memory problems An example of this is how treatment was applied to the elderly. A psychologist devised an intervention to train episodic memory in older people. Those who underwent a training session performed better on a test of episodic memory compared to a control group who didn't. This intervention demonstrates how distinguishing between different types of LTM can enable specific treatments to be developed. - Studying those with brain injuries is not always effective. Clinical studies are not always perfect due to lack of control of variables. Brain injuries experienced by participants are usually unexpected meaning that the researcher had no insight into what their memory was like before for comparison purposes. Without this, it is difficult to measure how much worse memory is afterwards. This lack of control limits what clinical studies can show us about the different types of LTM. - Conflicting neuroimaging evidence. There is conflicting evidence linking types of LTM to areas of the brain. When psychologists reviewed evidence regarding the location of semantic and episodic memory, they concluded that semantic memory is located in the left side of the prefrontal cortex and episodic is located on the right. However, other research links the left prefrontal cortex with encoding of episodic memories and the right side with episodic retrieval. Due to poor agreement of where each type may be located, this challenges evidence that supports types of memory.

Answer 18

- The WMM is a presentation of the short term memory system. It suggests that the STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using subunits coordinated by a central decision making system.

Answer 19

The central executive (CE) is a component of the WMM that co-ordinates the activities of the three subsystems in memory. It also allocates processing resources to those activities.

Answer 20

The phonological loop (PL) is a component of the WMM that processes information in terms of sound. This includes both written and spoken material. It is divided into the articulatory processes and phonological store.

Answer 21

The visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) is a component of the WMM that processes visual and spatial information in a mental space referred to as our inner eye.

Answer 22

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

Answer 23

- Central executive - Phonological loop - Visuo-spatial sketchpad - Episodic buffer.

Answer 24

The episodic buffer (EB) is a component of the WMM that brings together material from the other subsystems into a single memory. It also provides a bridge between the working memory and LTM.

Answer 25

The CE monitors incoming data, focuses and divides our limited attention and allocates subsystems to tasks. The CE has a very limited processing capacity and does NOT store information.

Answer 26

The PL deals with auditory information (coding is acoustic) and preserves the order in which the information arrives.

Answer 27

- The phonological store (Stores the words you hear) - The articulatory processes. (Allows maintenance rehearsal, this is repeating the information in a 'loop' to keep them in the working memory until they are needed. The capacity of this loop is believed to be two seconds' worth of what you can say).

Answer 28

The VS stores visual and spatial information when required. It has a limited capacity, estimated to be around 3-4 objects.

Answer 29

- The visual cache (Stores visual data) - The inner scribe (records the arrangement of objects in the physical field)

Answer 30

- The EB is a temporary store for information, integrating the visual, spatial, and verbal information processed by other stores. - It maintains a sense of time sequencing - recording events (episodes) that are happening. - It links the working memory to LTM and wider cognitive processes such as perception.

Answer 31

About 4 chunks.

Answer 32

- Clinical evidence. Studies surrounding KF, a patient who experienced a brain injury, supports the existence of the working memory model. KF had a poor STM ability for auditory information but could process visual information normally. His immediate recall of letters and digits was better when they he read them as opposed to when they were read to him. This implies that KF's phonological loop was damaged but his visuo-spatial sketchpad was still intact. This finding strongly supports the existence of separate visual and acoustic memory stores. - Limitations of clinical evidence. It is unclear whether KF had any other cognitive impairments, apart from damage to his phonological loop, that may have impacted his performance on the memory test. His injury was caused by a motorcycle accident, this means that we can't be sure whether the trauma involved affected his cognitive performance quite apart from any brain injury. This challenges clinical evidence of those with brain injuries as it may have impaired many different systems, as opposed to a single one. - Counterpoint to clinical evidence. It is unclear whether KF had other cognitive impairments from his brain damage which may have affected his performance of memory tasks. As his brain damage was a result of a motorcycle accident, the trauma involved may have impacted his cognitive performance quite apart from any other brain injury. This challenges evidence from clinical studies of people who have supposedly experienced damage to different systems. - Nature of the central executive. There is a lack of clarity over the nature of the central executive. Despite arguably being the most important component, the CE is not overly understood. From this, psychologists view this component of the WMM to be too simplistic due to the potential that the CE may contain subcomponents. As a result, this demonstrates that the CE is an unsatisfactory component in this theory, challenging the integrity of the WMM. - Dual-task performance Dual task performance supports the existence of the VSS. When Baddeley's participants carried out a visual and verbal task at the same time (dual task), their performance on each were similar when they carried out the tasks separately. In contrast, when both tasks were visual (or both were verbal), performance on these tasks declined substantially. This is because both visual tasks compete for the VSS, whereas there is no competition when performing a verbal and visual task together. This concludes that there must be a separate subsystem (VSS) that processes visual input, and one for verbal processing (the PL).

Answer 33

Interference is when someone will forget a piece of information due to one memory blocking another. This causes one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten.

Answer 34

Proactive interference (PI) is forgetting due to older memories, already stored, disrupt the recall of newer memories.

Answer 35

Retroactive interference (RI) is forgetting due to a new memory disrupting the recall of older memories which are already stored.

Answer 36

The degree of forgetting is greater when the two memories are similar.

Answer 37

McGeoch and McDonald studied retroactive interference by changing the amount of similarity between two sets of materials. Participants had to learn a list of words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy. They were then required to learn a new list of words: - Synonyms - Antonyms - Unrelated words - Consonant syllables - 3-digit numbers - no new list (control) Findings: The most similar words produced the worst recall.

Answer 38

McGeoch and McDonald.

Answer 39

- Proactive interference: previously stored information makes new similar information more difficult to store - Retroactive interference: new information overwrites previous similar memories because of their similarity.

Answer 40

- Real world interference. In Baddeley's study on rugby players, players were asked to recall the names of the teams they played against during rugby season. The players all played the same time interval, however, some players missed matches due to injury. The findings depicted that players who played the most games (more interference) had the poorest recall. - Interference is temporary. Interference is temporary and can be overcome by using clues. Psychologists gave participants lists of words organized into categories, one list at a time. Recall averaged around 70% for the first list, but became progressively worse as more were added. Participants, following the study were given a cued recall test - being told the names of the categories. Recall rose again to 70%. This means that interference causes a temporary loss of accessibility to the LTM, a finding not PREDICTED by interference theory. - Validity issues. As experiments on interference theory were carried out in lab settings, there is a lack of real world applicability. Studies, such as McGeoch and McDonalds used artificial materials and unrealistic procedures in regards to how interference operates in real life. In everyday life we learn material with semantic significance and usually recall these at a later date (for example, in an exam) something not considered in lab studies. - Unusualness of interference. Conditions necessary for interference to occur are relatively rare. This is very unlike lab studies where there is high control, creating ideal conditions for interference. Two memories have to have a high degree of similarity in order for interference to occur. It may happen in every day life (e.g: you revise similar subjects in a short amount of time) but it is not often. This suggests there may be better explanations for forgetting such as retrieval failure due to lack of cues.

Answer 41

- Interference - Retrieval failure

Answer 42

Retrieval failure is a form of forgetting. In this, we lack the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is still accessible, but only in the presence of a suitable cue.

Answer 43

A cue is a 'trigger' of information that allows us to access a memory. We forget information due to cues not being available to us when we want to recall that memory. Cues are encoded at the time of learning information.

Answer 44

A cue (if it is going to be helpful) has to be both... 1 - Present at encoding. 2 - Present at retrieval. It also states that if the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different (or if cues are entirely absent at retrieval) there will be some forgetting.

Answer 45

- Context dependant forgetting - State dependant forgetting.

Answer 46

Recall depends on external cues (example: weather or place)

Answer 47

Recall depends on internal cues (example: physiological or mental state)

Answer 48

Baddeley and Godden. UNDERWATER :)

Answer 49

Carter and Cassaday. ANTI-HISTAMINES :)

Answer 50

Baddeley and Godden studied deep-sea divers, aiming to investigate whether training on land helped or hindered their recall underwater. Divers learned a list of words either underwater or on land and then were asked to recall the words in the same or different condition. This created four conditions: - Learn on land, recall on land - Learn on land, recall underwater. - Learn underwater, recall underwater. - Learn underwater, recall on land. Findings: If the environment they recalled the list under did not match the one where the word list as learned, accurate recall was 40% less lower than recall in matching conditions. This concluded that external cues available at learning were different from the ones available at recall, leading to retrieval failure.

Answer 51

Carter and Cassaday investigated internal cues impacts on forgetting, using anti-histamine drugs to demonstrate this. Anti-histamines have a mild sedative effect, meaning it alters the internal physiological state of the participants. The participants were required to learn a list of words and passages of prose and then recall the information again after creating four conditions: - Learning on medication, recalling on medication. - Learning on medication, recalling not on medication. - Learning not on medication, recalling not on medication. - Learning not on medication, recalling on medication. Findings: In conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and at recall, performance on the memory test was significantly worse. This demonstrates that when cues are absent (in this case, being drowsy when recalling information but alert learning it) there is more forgetting.

Answer 52

- Real world application. Retrieval cues can help to overcome some forgetting in everyday situations. Although cues may not have a very strong effect on forgetting, Baddeley still maintains that they still hold purpose. For instance, when forgetting a purpose of an action such as entering a room to do something and forgetting - returning back to the previous room and then remembering, this shows the function of cues. This promotes the technique that you should make an attempt to recall the initial environment where the thought was learned to recall / remember, reducing forgetting. This shows how research can promote strategies usable in the real world to improve recall. - Research support. There is extensive research to uphold the retrieval failure explanation. Studies by Carter and Cassaday alongside Baddeley and Godden's experiment constitute two examples that show that lack of relevant cues can lead to context-dependent and state-dependent forgetting. Extending this, memory researchers argue that retrieval failure is perhaps the main reason for forgetting from LTM. This evidence conveys that retrieval failure occurs in real-world situations as well as highly controlled lab conditions. - Research criticism. There is possibility that retrieval failure forgetting is overstated. Baddeley argued that contexts effects are actually not very strong, especially in relation to everyday life. Different contexts have to be substantially different to create an effect. For example, in Godden and Baddeley's study, it would be hard to find an environment as different from land as underwater. In contrast, learning something in one room and recalling it in another is unlikely to result in much forgetting because these environments are generally not different enough. This means that retrieval failure due to lack of contextual cues may not actually explain much everyday forgetting. - Recall vs recognition. One limitation is that context effects may depend substantially on the TYPE of memory being tested. Godden and Baddeley proved this via replicating their underwater experiment, using a recognition test as opposed to recall. Participants were required to state whether they recognized a word read to them from a list previously, instead of retrieving it for themselves. As opposed to retrieval, when recognition was tested, there was no context dependent forgetting as performance was the same in all four conditions. This proves that retrieval failure is a limited explanation for forgetting because it only applied to retrieval of information rather than recognition. - Problems with the ESP. A limitation is that the ESP lacks the appropriate information to account for cue logistics. There is evidence that forgetting occurs due to a mismatch of cues. However, despite this, it is not fully possible to identify whether a cue has been encoded or not. The ESP is circular and based on assumptions.

Answer 53

Loftus and Palmer.

Answer 54

A leading question is where a question, because of the manner it is worded in, encourages a certain answer. For example: 'Was the knife in his left hand?' leads the eyewitness to believe that this was where the knife was.

Answer 55

Loftus and Palmer arranged for 45 participants to watch film clips of car accidents, then followed this up by asking questions. In the CRITICAL question (the leading question) participants were asked to describe the speed the cars were travelling at. The question was structured similar to "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" In each group, the word hit was replaced by a similar verb: contacted, bumped, collided, smashed. The findings were derived from calculating the mean speed estimate for each participant group. The verb contacted resulted in a mean estimated speed of 31.4 mph whereas for the verb smashed, the mean was 40.5 mph. This concluded that the leading question biased the eyewitnesses recall of an event.

Answer 56

- Contacted: 31.4 - Smashed: 40.5

Answer 57

- The response bias explanation. This suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on the participants memories, but just influences how they decide to answer. When a participant receives a leading question using the verb 'smashed' this incentivizes them to elect a higher speed estimate. - Substitution explanation Loftus and Palmer conducted a second experiment that supported the substitution explanation. The substitution explanation proposes that the wording of the leading question alters or distorts the participants memory of the film clip . This was shown from the participants under the 'smashed' condition were later more likely to report seeing broken glass (there was none) than those who heard hit. The critical verb also altered their memory of the incident.

Answer 58

- Response bias - Substitution

Answer 59

Gabbert et al.

Answer 60

Post event discussion is where there is more than one eyewitness to an event. This is where witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or with other people, influencing the accuracy of each witnesses recall of the answer.

Answer 61

Gabbert studied participants in pairs. Each participant watched a video of the same crime event, however witnessed it from different perspectives. This means that each participant could see aspects of the situation that the other could not. (For example: only one participant could see the title of a book being carried by a woman). Both participants discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall. Findings: The researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not personally see, but picked up in the discussion. This was compared to a control group that did not participate in post event discussion. Their recall of unseen aspects was 0%

Answer 62

71% recalled aspects that were said to them by the other participant.

Answer 63

- memory contamination. When co-witnesses are able to discuss the event with each other, their eyewitness testimonies may become distorted or altered. This is because they combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories. - memory conformity. Memory conformity occurs when witnesses go along with each other, either to win social approval or due to the belief that they had made a mistake and the other knows better. Unlike with memory contamination, the memory remains unchanged.

Answer 64

- Memory conformity - Memory contamination

Answer 65

- Real world application. One strength of research into misleading information is that it maintains practical uses in the criminal justice system. Due to research conducted on the effects of the leading question, the findings encourage police interviews to word their questions carefully to minimize inaccurate information prompted by the wording. In addition, this has promoted the use of psychologists during trials to advise judges on the limitations of EWTs, improving the way the legal system functions. - Evidence against substitution. EWT can be more accurate for some aspects than for others. Studies have outlined that recall can differ for central details compared to peripheral details. Presumably, witnesses attention could be focused on central features of the event - meaning that these memories are relatively resistant to misleading information. This suggests that the original memories for central details survived and were not distorted, an outcome not predicted by the substitution explanation. - Demand characteristics. Most studies conducted into misleading information took place in a lab environment. It can be argued that, due to the setting, participants felt more inclined to give answers appeasing the researchers - showing the interaction of demand characteristics. Response to demand characteristics can be interpreted when participants will guess when they are asked a question they are unsure of to help the researcher. - Criticism of studies (Loftus and Palmer) The practical applications of EWT may be affected by issues in research. For instance, Loftus and Palmers experiment included watching film clips in a lab, simulating a different experience than witnessing the event in real life. In the real world, the detail remembered may differ from those in lab studies due to the important consequences operating in real life situations. Oppositely, in a lab participants recall does not matter in the same way, making the participant less motivated to be accurate.

Answer 66

Anxiety is a state of emotional and physical arousal.

Answer 67

Scott and Johnson.

Answer 68

Participants were recruited under the belief that they were taking part in a lab study. While seated in the waiting room, participants under the low-anxiety variable overheard a casual conversation in the next room and then witnessed a man walk past them carrying a pen with grease on his hands. Participants under the high-anxiety variable overheard a heated conversation in the next room, accompanied by the sound of breaking glass. A man walked out of the room, holding a knife and covered in blood. Findings: The participants were later required to identify the man from a set of 50 photos. 49% who had seen the man carrying the pen were able to recognize the man. The corresponding figure for the participants who had seen the man holding the blood covered knife was 33% The tunnel theory argues that people have enhanced memory for central events. Weapon focus as a result of anxiety can have this effect. When facing a weapon, the participants under the high anxiety condition would disregard other details of the events such as the suspects face.

Answer 69

Yuille and Cutshall.

Answer 70

Yuille and Cutshall studied an actual shooting that had occurred in Vancouver, Canada. - 13 witnesses took part - They were interviewed 4-5 months after the incident - These interviews were compared to the original police interviews. - Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account. - The witnesses were also asked to rate their stress at the time of the incident on a 7-point scale and whether they had emotional issues following the event.

Answer 71

- The witnesses were accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount recalled or accuracy after 5 months. - Despite the amount of details remaining the same, there were some details that were less accurate such as colour of items and age/height/weight estimates. - Participants who reported the highest stress rating were the most accurate (88% compared to 75% in the less stressed group) This suggests that anxiety does not have a detrimental effect on accuracy of EWT in real world context, even enhancing it.

Answer 72

The Yerkes-Dodson Law

Answer 73

The idea that performance (in memory) will increase with stress but only to a certain point, where it decreases drastically.

Answer 74

- Unusualness not anxiety One limitation of the study by Johnson and Scott is that it may have not tested anxiety. The reason participants focused on the weapon within this study may be because they were surprised at what they saw rather than scared. In support, an experiment was conducted using scissors, a handgun, a wallet, or raw chicken as hand-held items in a hairdressing salon video (scissors would be high anxiety, low unusualness). Eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions (chicken and handgun). This suggests that the weapon focus effect is due to unusualness rather than anxiety and therefore tells us nothing specificially about the effects of anxiety on EWT. - Support for negative effects One strength is evidence supporting the view that anxiety has a negative effect on accuracy of recall. A study was carried out in the Horror Labyrinth at the London Dungeons. Visitors at the Labyrinth agreed to complete questionnaires at the end of their visit to assess level of self-reported anxiety. They wore wireless heart monitors to confirm they were experiencing anxiety and allocated into high and low anxiety groups. Following this, they were required to describe a person encountered. In high anxiety, recall averaged 17% whereas it was 75% in the low variant. This used objective measures (heart rate) and clearly disrupted participants ability to recall details about the actor in the London Dungeons labyrinth. This suggests that a high level of anxiety does have a negative effect on the immediate EW recall of a stressful event. - Support for positive effects Another strength is evidence showing that anxiety can have positive effects on recall. 58 witnesses to actual bank robberies in Sweden were interviewed. Some witnesses were directly involved (bank workers) and some were indirectly involved as bystanders. The researchers assumed that those directly involved would experience the most anxiety. It was found that recall was more than 75% accurate across all witnesses. The direct victims (higher anxiety) were even more accurate. - COUNTERPOINT to positive effects. In counterpoint to the Swedish bank robbery study, the participants were interviewed several months after the event. The researchers therefore had no control over what happened to the participants in the intervening time, such as post-event discussions. The effects of anxiety may have been overwhelmed by other factors and therefore, are impossible to assess by the time the participants were interviewed. Therefore, it is possible that a lack of control over *confounding variables* may be responsible for these findings, invalidating their support.

Answer 75

- Report everything - Reinstate the context - Reverse the order - Change perspective

Answer 76

- Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event, even irrelevant aspects and things witnesses don’t feel confident about reporting. - These trivial details can be important and trigger other important memories.

Answer 77

The witness should return to the crime scene in their mind, imagining the environment and their emotions. This relates to context-dependant forgetting.

Answer 78

The events being recalled in a different order from the original sequence. This is to prevent people reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened. It can also prevent dishonesty as it is hard for people to produce an untruthful story if reversed.

Answer 79

- Witnesses should recall the incident from other people’s perspectives (for example, the witnesses or perpetrator) - This, again, disrupts the effect of expectations and also the effect of schema on recall.

Answer 80

- A focus on the dynamics of the interaction - comfortable eye contact - reducing eye witness anxiety - minimising distraction - getting witness to speak slowly - asking open ended questions.

Answer 81

- Support for the effectiveness of the CI Meta-analysis comparing the CI to standard police interviews saw a dramatic increase in accurate information provided by the CI. - Some elements are more useful than others Not all of its elements are equally effective or useful. Studies found that using a combination of REPORT EVERYTHING and REINSTATE THE CONTEXT produced better recall than any other elements Casting doubt on the credibility of the overall cognitive interview. - CI is time-consuming Police officers may be reluctant to use the cognitive interview due to its requiring more time and training compared to the standard. For example, time is needed to establish a rapport with a witness and allow them to relax. The CI requires special training which many do not have the resources for, making it an unrealistic method. - May increase incorrect information Researchers have also found that this can create an increase in inaccurate information recalled by participants, particularly in the ECI. This is because the CI may sacrifice quality of EWT in favour of quantity (details). This means the CI should be taken w/ caution.

Answer 82

Fisher and Geiselman

Answer 83

- Research on coding: Baddeley --> STM (acoustic), LTM (semantic). - Research on capacity: Jacobs --> digit span. Miller --> chunking (span of memory) - Research on duration: Bahrick --> duration of LTM, Petersen and Peterson --> duration of STM.

Answer 84

- Atkinson and Shiffrin's MSM. - Sensory register: it's coding, capacity and duration - STM - LTM - How memory is transferred between stores: attention, retrieval, prolonged rehearsal and maintenance rehearsal.

Answer 85

- Tulving proposing 3 memory stores - Episodic memory (+ characteristics) - Semantic memory (+ characteristics) - Procedural memory (+ characteristics)

Answer 86

- The WMM - Central executive and role - Phonological loop split into: phonological store and articulatory process. - Visuo-spatial sketchpad split into: visual cache and inner scribe. - Episodic buffer

Answer 87

- Interference theory - Types of interference: proactive interference and retroactive interference - Research on effects of similarity: McGeoch and McDonald. - Explaining the effects of similarity.

Answer 88

- Retrieval failure - Encoding specificity principle - Types of forgetting; context-dependent forgetting and state-dependent forgetting - Research on context dependent forgetting: Godden and Baddeley divers - Research on state-dependent forgetting: Carter and Cassaday

Answer 89

- Leading questions - Research on leading questions: Loftus and Palmer - How leading questions affect EWT: response-bias explanation, substitution explanation - Post event discussion - Research on post-event discussion: Gabbert - How post event discussion affects EWT: memory contamination, memory conformity.

Answer 90

- Anxiety has a negative effect on recall: *weapon focus* - Negative effect of anxiety study: Johnson and Scott knife grease. - Anxiety has a positive effect on recall: *fight or flight?* - Positive effects of anxiety study: Yuille and Cutshall Vancouver shooting - Explaining contradictory findings: Yerkes-Dodson law 'inverted U' graph.

Answer 91

- Techniques of the cognitive interview: report everything, reinstate the context, reverse the order, change perspective - Fishers enhanced cognitive interview (ECI).