Approaches Flashcards
1
Q
Who is labelled the ‘father of psychology?’
A
Wilhelm Wundt
2
Q
Where was Wundt’s lab?
A
Leipzig, Germany.
3
Q
How did Wundt change psychology?
A
- Separated it from it’s philosophical roots.
- First to use experimental methods
4
Q
What were the two techniques introduced by Wundt?
A
- Standardized procedures
- Structuralism
5
Q
What was Wundt’s pioneering method of studying psychology?
A
Introspection.
6
Q
What is meant by introspection?
A
Introspection was the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind through breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
7
Q
What is meant by structuralism?
A
Structuralism is isolating the structure of consciousness.
The stimuli Wundt et al. experienced were always presented in the same order and the same instructions were issued to all participants.
8
Q
Evaluate the origins of psychology.
A
- Scientific
One strength of Wundt’s work is that some of his methods were systematic and well-controlled. All introspections were conducted systematically in a controlled lab setting, reducing extraneous variables being an interfering factor. In addition, procedures and instructions were carefully standardized so all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way. This suggests that Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology,
setting the basis for these, such as the behaviourist approach. - Subjective data
One limitation is that other aspects of Wundt’s research may be perceived as unscientific modernly. Wundt’s data collection methods could be subjective as he relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes. This creates the issue of data being influenced by a personal perspective - possibly even leading to a social desirability response or response to demand characteristics. It is difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’ from such data. General laws are useful to predict future behaviour, which is one of the aims of science. This suggests Wundt’s early efforts and methodology were flawed, so would not meet criteria of scientific enquiry.
9
Q
Why is Wundt significant in the study of psychology?
A
Wundt established the beginning of psychology as a science, separating it from it’s philosophical roots by employing techniques such as introspection, standardization and structuralism in a lab in Leipzig.
10
Q
What is the behaviourist approach?
A
The behaviourist approach is a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
11
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
Learning through association.
12
Q
Outline Pavlov’s experiment into classical conditioning.
A
- Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time they were given food (the UCS)
- Pavlovs dog learned to associate the sound of the bell (NS) with the food (UCS) and would produce the salivation response upon the sound of a bell.
- Thus, Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus (the bell), can come to elicit a new learned response (conditioned response) through association.
13
Q
What is the process of classical conditioning?
A
- Unconditioned stimulus → unconditioned response
- Neutral stimulus → no response
- UCS + NS → unconditioned response
- Conditioned stimulus (once NS) → conditioned response.
14
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
Learning through consequence, proposed to be an active process.
15
Q
What are the three categories of operant conditioning?
A
- Positive reinforcement
- Negative reinforcement
- Punishment
16
Q
What is positive reinforcement?
A
Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed, increasing the likelihood for the behaviour to be repeated.
17
Q
What is negative reinforcement?
A
- The avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus, with the outcome being a positive experience.
- This increases the likelihood of this behaviour being repeated due to reinforcement.
18
Q
What is punishment in behaviourism?
A
- An unpleasant consequence of behaviour.
- Punishment decreases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.
19
Q
Who demonstrated operant conditioning and what did they do?
A
- Skinner
- Skinner conducted experiments with rats and pigeons, with them being placed in a specially designed “skinners box”
- Every time the animal activated a level within the box it was rewarded with a good pellet, the animal would continue to perform this behaviour (positive reinforcement)
- Skinner also modelled negative reinforcement through conditioning the animals to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus, in this case, an electric shock.
20
Q
Evaluate the behaviourist approach
A
- Well controlled research
One strength of the behaviourist approach is that is is based on well-controlled research. Behaviourists focus on measurement of observable behaviour in highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into stimulus-response units, all possible extraneous variables can be minimized, and cause and effect relationships can be drawn. For example, Skinner could demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animals behaviour. This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility. - Oversimplification COUNTERPOINT
In counterpoint to establishing high degrees of control, there is potential that behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process. From reducing behaviour to such simple components, behaviourists disregard an important influence on learning - human thought. Other approaches, such as social learning theory and the cognitive approach have accounted for the mental processes involved in learning. This suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone, and that private mental processes are also essential. - Real-world application.
Another strength of the behaviourist approach is that principles of conditioning have been applied to real world behaviors and issues. Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems, being used successfully in institutions such as prisons or psychiatric wards. Token systems operate by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. Also, classical conditioning can be used to explain why phobias are formed - and aiding in treatment such as systematic desensitisation and flooding. This increases the value of the behaviourist approach, being used for rehabilitation and treatment efforts. - Environmental determinism
One limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of reinforcement history. When something happens, for example, we may think ‘I made the decision to do that’ but, according to Skinner, our conditioning history determined the outcome. This refutes any possible influence of free will on behaviour. Skinner asserted himself that free will was an illusion. This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour.
21
Q
Who contributed to social learning theory?
A
Bandura
22
Q
What does social learning theory suggest?
A
Behaviour is learned from experience - through observation and imitation of others.
It also suggests that learning theory occurs with both direct and indirect classical and operant conditioning.
23
Q
What is vicarious reinforcement
(social learning theory)
A
Vicarious reinforcement is reinforcement that is not directly experienced, occurring through someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
24
Q
What are the four mediational processes according to Bandura?
A
- Attention: the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
- Retention: how well the behaviour is remembered
- Motor reproduction: the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
- Motivation: the will to perform the behaviour, according to whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.
(First 2 relate to learning, second 2 relate to performance)
25
What is the definition of mediational process?
Cognitive factors (such as thinking) that influence learning, becoming between stimulus and response.
26
What is identification in SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY.
People (especially children) are more likely to imitate people they identify with, this process being identification.
- The person they identify with is called the role model and the process of imitation is called modelling. (NOTE: the behavior of the role model is also known as modelling)
- This occurs when the role model is seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have a high status.
- Role models are not always physically present in the environment, having important implications for medias influence.
27
Outline the Bobo doll experiment.
- Bandura observed children aged between 3-6 in a controlled experiment. In the experiment, children witnessed adults behave aggressively towards a bobo doll (for example hitting it with a toy hammer).
- The children were later observed playing with toys, including the bobo doll. They were seen to be more likely to imitate the aggression watched to these toys compared to a group who did not witness aggression. In addition, this was more prevalent in those who watched the same-sex adult enact these actions.
- Another study variant had three groups of children observed. The first group witnessed the adult be praised and rewarded for their behavior, such as being praised. The second group saw the adult be punished for their action, such as being told off. The third control group witnessed no repercussion for the adults aggression towards the bobo doll.
- The outcomes showed that the first group were more likely to imitate/replicate the actions, followed by the control group, followed by the second group. This shows how vicarious reinforcement plays a role in learning.
28
Evaluate Social Learning theory
- Recognizes cognitive factors
One strength of social learning theory is that it recognizes the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own. SLT, however, recognizes the importance of cognitive factors, looking at how animals store information about the behaviors of others and judge when appropriate to perform this. This suggests SLT is more comprehensive in explaining human learning through identifying and recognizing the role of mediational processes.
- Contrived lab studies
One limitation of social learning theory is that evidence on which it is based was gathered through lab studies. SLT being demonstrated was through lab studies on children could've led to potential for demand characteristics. As a result, lab studies into learning were criticized for their contrived nature. This is seen in the Bobo doll experiment where the children may have felt incentivized to behave the way that they believed was expected, rather than the way they learned. This suggests research may tell us little about how children actually learn behaviours, such as aggression, in everyday life.
- Real-world application
Another strength of SLT principles is that they can be applied to a range of real-world behaviours. Social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behavior. The SLT principles of modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from others around them, including the media. This can also explain how social/cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviors, especially how children come to understand their gender role. This, therefore, increases the value of the approach as it can account for real world behaviour.
- Reciprocal determinism
A further strength of SLT is proposing a compromise that acknowledges the role of both determinism and free will in learning. Bandura acknowledged reciprocal determinism, where we are not merely influenced by our external environment, but we also exert an influence on it through the behaviors we choose to perform. This proposes an element of choice, suggesting there is free will in the way we behave, taking a less extreme standpoint compared to the behaviourist approach.
This suggests there are elements of free will in how we behave, making it more comprehensive and flexible than behaviorism.
29
What does the cognitive approach focus on?
How our mental processes (thoughts, perception and attention) affects behavior.
30
What are the assumptions of the cognitive approach?
- Internal mental processes, can, and should be studied scientifically.
- The cognitive approach investigates areas of behavior that are neglected by behaviorists, such as memory, perception and thinking.
- As these processes are private, cognitive psychologists study them indirectly, making inferences about the processes in peoples minds on the basis of behavior.
31
What is meant by the schema in cognitive psychology?
- Schemas are 'packages' of ideas and information formed through experience.
- They act as mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system.
- The schema enables us to process lots of information quickly, acting as a mental shortcut to prevent us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
However, the schema may distort interpretations of sensory information, leading to processing errors.
32
What do cognitive psychologists use to help them understand internal mental processes?
Theoretical and computer models.
33
What is the difference between theoretical and computer models?
Theoretical models are abstract.
Computer models are concrete things.
34
What is an example of a theoretical model in cognitive psychology and what does it mean?
- The information processing approach.
- It suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a series of stages.
These include: input, storage and retrieval, as in the multi-store model (IN THE MEMORY TOPIC)
35
Are babies born with a schema, and if so, does it develop overtime?
Yes, they are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping.
As we get older, our schema becomes more sophisticated and detailed, developing mental representations for most thinks such as the concept of psychology and what a unicorn looks like.
36
What is cognitive neuroscience?
- The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
- This involves advanced brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans.
- Recently it has expanded to computer models that are designed to “read” the brain.
37
What does a computer model involve
- Involves both the analogy of the human mind as a computer and actually programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to humans.
- If they do, we can suggest that similar processes are going on in the human mind.
- This has proved useful in the development of artificial intelligence.
38
Evaluate the cognitive approach.
- Scientific methods
One strength of the cognitive approach is that it uses objective, scientific methods. Cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled and rigorous methods of study, so researchers can infer cognitive processes as they are occurring. This has involved lab studies to produce reliable, objective data. In addition the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to combine and enhance the scientific basis of study. This means that the study of the mind through cognitive techniques has a highly credible scientific basis.
- May be too theoretical.
One limitation of the methods used under the cognitive approach is the fact it is over-reliant on inference of mental processes, rather than direct observation. Due to this manner of study, the cognitive approach can suffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature. Similarly, methods employed can be criticized for using artificial stimuli, such as tests of memory involving random word lists that do not represent everyday experience. Therefore, research on cognitive processes may lack external validity.
- Real world application
Another strength of the cognitive approach is that it has practical application. The cognitive approach is modernly considered the most dominant approach, and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts. For example, it has contributed to the field of artificial intelligence, and the development of 'thinking machines' (robots). So, emerging from the cognitive approach are exciting advances that can revolutionize how we live in the future. Cognitive principles have also been applied currently to the treatment of depression, such as CBT. Another current application is the cognitive approaches use in improving the reliability of EWT. So, this supports the cognitive approach in both current application and potential future benefits.
- Machine reductionism.
One limitation of the cognitive approach is that it is based on machine reductionism. There are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a 'thinking machine' such as a computer in terms of inputs, outputs, storage systems and use of a central processor. However, the computer analogy is easily criticized. Such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation in the cognitive system. For instance, research finds how memory can be affected by emotional factors like anxiety in EWT. This suggests that machine reductionism weakens the validity of the cognitive approach.
39
What is the biological approach?
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural functions.
In this perspective, it means our thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately has a physical basis.
40
What are genes?
Units that make up chromosomes and consist of DNA, coding the physical and psychological features of an organism.
Genes are inherited genetically.
41
What is meant by neurochemistry in the biological approach.
The action of chemicals in the brain that may determine behaviour.
An imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain have been attributed to the cause of mental disorder such as low serotonin in OCD.
42
What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
- Genotype: the particular set of genes that a person possesses
- Phenotype: the characteristics of an individual expressed, determined by both genetic factors and the environment.
43
How do they study if behaviour has genetic characteristics
- They use twin studies.
- They analyse concordance rates, the rate to which twins share the same characteristic.
- We would expect if a characteristic is genetic, monozygotic twins would be concordat due to sharing 100% of the same genes.
- This would not be the case in dizygotic twins who share around 50% of their genes.
In both cases the environment is assumed to be constant.
44
What is monozygotic and dizygotic?
- Monozygotic: identical twins
- Dizygotic: non-identical twins
45
What does evolution mean in the context of the biological approach?
- Evolution is the changes in inherited characteristics of a biological population over time.
- Natural selection, proposed by Darwin, believes that genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival will continue.
- This takes place naturally, selection occurs due to certain traits giving a survival advantage.
The possessor is more likely to survive and pass on these traits.
46
Evaluate the biological approach
- Real world application.
One strength of the biological approach is that it has real-world application. Increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat disorders. For example, the biological approach promotes the treatment of clinical depression using anti-depressant drugs that increase serotonin neurotransmitters at synapses. Such drugs have been associated with reduction of depressive symptoms. This means that people with disorders, such as depression, may be better able to manage their condition and live their lives in the community, rather than remain in hospital.
- Anti depressants do not always work COUNTERPOINT
In counterpoint to the application of the biological approach in drug therapy, there is counteractive research proposing drugs do not work for every patient. For instance, research compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness. Although most of the drugs were more effective than placebos in comparative trials, the researchers ultimately concluded that the effects of anti-depressants, in general, were 'mainly modest'. This challenges the value of the biological approach as it suggests that brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of, for example, depression.
- Scientific methods
Another strength of the biological approach is that it uses scientific methods in investigations. In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach makes use of a range of precise and highly objective methods. These methods include scanning techniques (fMRI and EEGs). With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias. This portrays much of the biological approach as being based on objective and reliable data.
- Biological determinism.
One limitation of the biological approach is that it is determinist. The biological approach is determinist in the sense that it sees behaviour as governed by internal genetic causes which we have no control over. Despite this, we have already observed that the way in which an individuals genotype is expressed is heavily influenced by the environment. Not even identical twins who share the same genes look the same and think the same. This genetic argument can be damaging and problematic in application to criminal trials, excusing actions on genetic basis.
This suggests that the biological approach is often too simplistic and ignores mediating effects such as the environment.
47
Who contributed / founded the psychodynamic approach?
Sigmund Freud.
48
What does the psychodynamic approach suggest?
Most of our mind is made of the unconscious, a store of biological drives and instincts that we are unaware of, dictating our behaviour.
The unconscious also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed.
49
What are the three levels of our mind, according to Freud?
- The conscious
- The preconscious
(just under the surface of the conscious, containing thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but able to be accessed when desired)
- The unconscious
50
How could the conscious be accessed?
Accessed during dreams or through “slips of the tongue” (parapraxes)
51
What are the components of the “tripartite” structure of personality?
- The Id
- The ego
- The superego
52
What is the Id in the psychodynamic approach?
- A primitive part of personality, formed of unconscious drives and instincts.
- operates on the pleasure principle
- It is present at birth
- Selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs.
53
What is the Ego in the psychodynamic approach?
- Operates on the reality principle
- Mediates between the two other parts of the tripartite.
- Develops around age of 2.
- Manages mediation through employing a number of defence mechanisms.
54
What is the Superego in the psychodynamic approach?
- Operates on the morality principle
- Forms in the phallic stage (5 y.o)
- Our internalised sense of right and wrong.
- Represents our moral standards of the child’s same gender parent
- Punishes the Id through guilt.
55
What are the 5 psychosexual stages?
(In order)
- Oral
- Anal
- Phallic
- Latent
- Genital
56
What occurs during the oral stage and what are it’s consequences unsolved conflict?
- Focus of pleasure is the mouth, the mothers breast could be the object of desire.
- Oral fixation occurs: smoking, biting nails.
57
What occurs during the anal stage and what are it’s consequences unsolved conflict?
- Focus of pleasure is the anus.
The child gains pleasure from withholding or expelling faeces.
- The child could become anal retentive: perfectionist and obsessive or anal expulsive: thoughtless and messy.
58
What occurs during the phallic stage and what are it’s consequences unsolved conflict?
- The child’s focus of pleasure is the genital area.
- Phallic personality: narcissistic, reckless.
59
What occurs during the latent stage?
Earlier conflicts are repressed.
60
What occurs during the genital stage and what are it’s consequences unsolved conflict?
- Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty.
- Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
61
What is the consequence of unresolved conflict in the psychosexual stages?
- Fixation.
The child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage into adulthood.
62
What are the three defence mechanisms proposed by Freud and what do they mean?
- Repression:
Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
- Displacement:
Transferring feelings from the true source of distressing emotion onto a more appropriate substitute target.
- Denial:
Refusing to acknowledge an aspect of reality.
63
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconscious strategies used by the Ego to manage conflict between the Id and superego.
64
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach.
- Real world application
One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it introduced the idea of psychotherapy, as opposed to the previous *physical* treatments. Freud introduced a new form of therapy - psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis was the first attempt to treat disorders psychologically as opposed to physically. This new technique employed a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious such as dream analysis. This psychoanalysis therapy claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into the conscious mind so they can be dealt with. It pioneered modern day talking therapy such as counselling, that have since been established.
This shows the value of the psychodynamic approach in creating new approach to treatment.
- May enhance disorder symptoms (COUNTERPOINT)
In counterpoint to the application of psychotherapy, introduced under the psychodynamic approach - this may be inappropriate for different cases. Psychotherapy may have claimed to successfully treated those with mild neuroses, however, it may be damaging in more severe cases. For instance, in schizophrenia, paranoia and delusional thinking may mean that they cannot articulate their thoughts in the way psychoanalysis intends. This is accompanied by the fact schizophrenia is associated with a loss of grip on reality, which means that psychoanalysis may be harmful for this specific mental disorder.
This suggests that Freudian therapy, and theory, may not apply to all mental disorders.
- Explanatory power
Another strength of Freud's theory is its ability to explain human behaviour. Even with its controversy, Freud's theory has had a large influence on psychology and contemporary thought. Alongside behaviorism, the psychodynamic approach remained a key force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century. This approach has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena such as personality development, origins of psychological disorders, moral development and gender identity. This approach is also significant in drawing attention to connection between childhood experience and later development. This suggests that, overall, the psychodynamic approach has had a positive impact on psychology - and also literature, art and other activities.
- Untestable concepts.
One limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that much of it is untestable. Karl Popper, a philosopher, argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification. It is not open to empirical testing (and the possibility of being disproved). Many Freudian concepts are said to be unconscious (such as the Id and Oedipus complex), making practically impossible to test.
Furthermore, Freud based his ideas on the subjective study of individuals, such as Little Hans, which makes it difficult to make universal claims.
This suggests the psychodynamic approach is pseudoscientific, rather than an established fact.
65
What was the Little Hans study?
- A case study following a 5 year old boy, attempting to support the Freudian concept of the Oedipus/Electra complex.
- Data was collected through letters recording observations from Little Hans’ father.
- Hans developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse. Freud explained that this phobia was formed through displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was displaced into horses.
Hans was inferred to have a fear that his father would castrate him as punishment for incestuous desire from his mother.
- He also was observed to have an obsession with his genital area, being perceived as evidence for the phallic stage. He showed animosity towards his baby sister, apparently wishing that his mother would drown him in the bath.
66
What is humanistic psychology?
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self-determination.
67
Who are the two Humanistic psychologists?
Rogers and Maslow
68
What is free will?
The notion that humans can make choices that aren’t determined by internal biological or external forces.
69
What do humanistic psychologists believe?
- Human beings are essentially self-determining and have free will.
- People are still affected by external and internal influences, but are active agents who determine their own development.
70
Is humanistic psychology based on scientific methods?
- No, they reject more scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour.
- Humanism focuses more on subjective experience instead of general laws, as they believe that humans are unique.
- This is called a PERSON CENTRED APPROACH.
71
Who created the 'hierarchy of needs' ?
Maslow
72
From bottom to top, list the categories on the hierarchy of needs.
- Physiological needs
- Safety and security
- Love and belongingness
- Self esteem
- Self-actualisation
73
What does Maslow believe about the hierarchy of needs?
In order to reach our primary goal of self-actualisation, other needs need to be satisfied first.
74
What are the four lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs referred as?
Deficiency needs.
( Self-actualisation is called a growth need )
75
What is the definition of self-actualisation?
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil ones potential - becoming what you are capable of.
76
Who introduced the concept of congruence and the 'self' ?
Rogers
77
What is meant by congruence?
When someone's self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match.
78
What happens if your self-concept and ideal self does not match?
INCONGRUENCE.
If the gap is too big between the two 'selves' this occurs.
- Self actualisation, therefore, will not be possible due to negative feelings of self-worth and esteem.
79
What method can be used to reduce incongruence?
Client-centred therapy (counselling).
Here, the counsellor can provide unconditional positive regard to their clients to counteract conditions of worth in childhood.
80
What is incongruence caused by?
A lack of unconditional positive regard (lack of unconditional love) from parents.
A parent who puts boundaries or limits on their love for their child (CONDITIONS OF WORTH) causes this.
81
What makes counselling unique?
- Those who receive this are called 'clients' rather than 'patients'
- The therapy is non-directive, not directed by the counsellor.
- The client is encouraged towards discovering their own solutions.
82
How is counselling different and similar to psychotherapy?
- Counselling focuses on the present, psychotherapy focuses on the past.
- Both psychotherapy and counselling are able to offer treatment for mild neuroses such as anxiety and low self esteem.
83
What 3 things did Rogers believe made an effective therapist?
- Genuineness
- Empathy
- Unconditional positive regard
84
Evaluate the Humanistic approach.
- Not reductionist
One strength of the humanistic approach is that it rejects attempts to break down behavior and experience into small components (reductionism). Behaviourists explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus-response connections. Supporters of the cognitive approach see human beings as little more than information-processing machines. Biological psychologists reduce behaviour to it's basic physiological processes. In contrast, humanistic psychologists advocate holism, subjective experience can only be understood through considering the whole person. This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real world context.
- Less scientific (COUNTERPOINT)
In counterpoint to the benefits of humanistic holism, reductionist approaches may be more scientific. The ideal of science is the experiment, and experiments reduce behaviour to independent and dependent variables. Humanism does not rely on experiments, nor reduce behaviours to variables. In humanism, unlike behaviorism, there are relatively few concepts able to be broken down into variables and measured. This means that humanistic psychology, in general, is short on empirical evidence to support its claims.
- Positive approach
Another strength of the humanistic approach is that it is optimistic. Humanistic psychology has been praised for 'bringing the person back into psychology' and promoting a positive image of the human condition. This is opposite to Freudian belief that people are prisoners to their past and exist between 'common unhappiness and despair'. In contrast, humanists view all as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control their lives. This suggests that humanism promotes progression - offering a refreshing and optimistic alternative to other approaches.
- Cultural bias
One limitation of the humanist approach is that it may be culturally-biased. Many ideas central to humanism, such as autonomy, personal growth and self actualization are mainly associated with Individualist societies tendencies. Countries with collectivist tendencies instead emphasize the needs of the group and interdependence. In such countries, the humanistic ideals, such as self-actualization isn't overly valued. Therefore, this limits the universal application of humanism due to it being a product of individualist culture from which it was developed.
85
What study did Bandura conduct to support social learning theory?
Bobo doll experiment
86
What comes under the topic 'Origins of psychology' ?
- Wundt 1879.
- Introspection
- Standardized procedures
- Structuralism
- The emergence of psychology as a science: Psychodynamic approach, 1900's behaviourists, 1950s humanistic approach, 1950s cognitive approach, 1960s social learning theory, 1980s biological approach, cognitive neuroscience modernly.
87
Evaluate the emergence of psychology as a science
- Modern psychology
One strength is that research in modern psychology can claim to be scientific. Psychology has the same aim as natural sciences - to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour. The learning approaches, cognitive approach and biological approach all rely on the use of scientific methods, for example, lab studies to investigate theories in controlled and unbiased ways. This suggests that throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline.
- Subjective data
One limitation of psychology is that not all approaches use objective methods. The humanistic approach rejects the scientific approach, preferring to focus on individual experiences and subjective experience. The psychodynamic approach makes use of the case study method which does not employ representative samples. Finally, the subject of study - human beings - are active participants in research, responding to demand characteristics. Therefore, a scientific approach to the study of human thought and experience may not always be desirable or possible.
88
What comes under the topic: 'learning approaches: the behaviourist approach'
- Assumptions of the behaviourist approach (reject introspection as difficult to measure, lab studies for objectivity, animals rather than humans, observing observable behaviour, types of conditioning).
- Pavlov's research into classical conditioning
- Skinner's research into operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment.
89
What comes under the topic: 'learning approaches: social learning theory'
- Assumptions of SLT (behaviour learned from experience, ways in which people learn: observation and imitation of others, this occurring both directly in conditioning and indirectly).
- Vicarious reinforcement
- The role of mediational processes (mental factors that determine whether a response is acquired): attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation.
- Identification: role model and modelling.
90
What comes under the topic: 'The cognitive approach'
- Assumptions of the cognitive approach (argument that internal mental processes can, and should, be studied scientifically, study of memory, perception and thinking that are 'private' and inferencing.
- The role of the schema
- Theoretical models (information processing approach)
- Computer models
- The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
91
What comes under the topic: 'The biological approach'
- Assumptions of the biological approach (we must look to biological structures and processes within the body, thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis)
- The neurochemical basis of behaviour (actions of neurotransmitters, imbalance causing mental disorders.
- The genetic basis of behaviour (purpose of twin studies: MZ, DZ and concordance rates, used to investigate genetic basis)
- Genotype and phenotype (nature and nurture)
- Evolution and behaviour (role of natural selection)
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What comes under the topic: 'The psychodynamic approach'
- The role of the unconscious: pre-conscious, unconscious and conscious.
- The 'tripartite' structure of personality: the Id, the Ego, the Superego and the principles they operate on.
- Psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latentcy, genital and fixation.
- Defence mechanisms: repression, denial and displacement.
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What comes under the topic: 'Humanistic psychology'
- Free will and the person centered approach
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs that motivate our behaviour (deficiency needs: physiological needs, safety and security, love and belongingness, self esteem. Growth need: self-actualization.
- The self, congruence and conditions of worth.
- Roger's 'client centered therapy' offering unconditional positive regard.
- Counselling (what an effective therapist should provide: genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard).
