Issues and debates Flashcards
1
Q
Define gender bias
A
The tendency to treat one individual group in a different way to others based on gender.
2
Q
What does bias cause issues with?
A
Universality
3
Q
Define universality
A
Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, even despite differences of experience and upbringing
4
Q
What are the two forms of gender bias?
A
- Alpha bias
- Beta bias
5
Q
What is alpha bias?
A
Research that focuses on and exaggerates differences between male and females
6
Q
What is beta bias?
A
Research that ignores or underestimates differences between male and females
7
Q
Give an example of alpha bias and elaborate
A
FREUD PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES.
- In the Phallic stage, boys and girls were proposed to both develop a desire for their opposite gender parent. In a boy, this manifests as strong castration anxiety which is resolved when he identifies with his father.
In a girl, her identification is weaker which means her superego is weaker (as it develops as a result of taking on the same-genders moral perspective). This has created the impression that females are morally inferior to men. - Oppositely, alpha bias can favor women in the psychodynamic approach. It was proposed that daughters and mothers have a greater connectedness than sons and mothers due to biological similarities. As a result of the child’s closeness, women develop better abilities to bond with others and empathies.
8
Q
Give an example of beta bias and elaborate
A
FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE
- Biological research tends to favour male over female animals on the basis that they experience less hormonal fluctuations and ignores any potential differences in the fight or flight response.
- Against the assumption that women and men react the same to a threat, Taylor et al. proposed an alternate “tend and befriend” response. Oxytocin, the “love hormone” is more plentiful in women and studies suggest women produce oxytocin in response to stressors. This shows how research that minimises/disregards differences between gender may result in a misinterpretation of women’s behaviour.
9
Q
What are beta bias and alpha bias a consequence of?
A
Androcentrism
10
Q
Define androcentrism, and what is the potential consequence of it?
A
- Means male-centred
- When ‘normal behaviour’ is judged according to a male standard
- This creates the consequence of female behaviour being judged to be abnormal or inferior in comparison
11
Q
Define universality
A
Universality is any underlying characteristic of human beings that is able to be applied to all despite differences in upbringing and experience
12
Q
How does gender and culture bias affect universality?
A
Gender and culture bias threaten the universality of findings
13
Q
Evaluate gender bias
A
- Essentialist perspective
A limitation of gender biased research is that it may have essentialist perspective origins - this is as it suggests that proposed differences between sexes are fixed and inevitable. An example of this was “scientific” research in 1930 claiming that intellectual activity, such as attending university would cause infertility in women. Essentialist theories and research are often politically motivated arguments made to be facts. This suggests that double standards can be generated through gender biased research that views behavior differently regarding someone’s sex. - Positive reflexivity
A strength of identifying gender bias is that increased awareness has made researchers more aware of their own value and preconceptions influence on research.
It is becoming common to embrace the effects of their values on their research, rather than dismiss it as a problem or threat to objectivity.
Example: study on lack of executive position women in accountancy firms. They outlined how their own experiences as women had influenced their interpretation of events. This is reflexivity - becoming important in psychology which leads to awareness of personal biases in shaping research. - Serious implications
A limitation of gender bias is that research that includes gender bias can lead to serious negative implications.
If a theory is biased, it will fail to challenge negative stereotypes and can lead to the allowance of discrimination.
Research may attempt to justify unfair treatment of females such as denying workplace opportunities. If androcentrism is accepted and behavior of males is viewed as the norm then it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal.
This can be damaging, contributing to pathologizing conditions such as PMD and leading to 2x diagnosis of depression. - Institutional sexism
A further limitation of gender bias is that there may be inequalities between males and females within the research process due to multiple factors.
Women are less likely to be appointed as senior researchers, creating a bias concerning what is being researched.
Research from males is more likely to be published and research guilty of alpha bias tends to be more prevalent in journals.
Even in the design of experiments there are disadvantages to women as participants may feel intimidated by a male researcher who has the potential to judge them as abnormal. This results in the field potentially supporting institutional sexism alongside biased theories.
14
Q
What is meant by culture bias?
A
The tendency to interpret all phenomena through the perspective of one’s own culture, ignoring the effect that cultural differences has on behaviour
15
Q
What acronym describes people most likely to be studied and what does it stand for.
A
- WEIRD
- Westernised
- Educated
- Industrialised
- Rich
- Democracies
16
Q
What is a form of culture bias?
A
Ethnocentrism
17
Q
Who created the WEIRD acronym to describe the culturally biased group usually studied
A
Heinrich et al
18
Q
Define ethnocentrism
A
Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture
This contributes to perceived superiority one’s own culture
19
Q
Give an example of ethnocentrism in research and elaborate
A
- Ainsworths strange situation
It is criticised for reflecting only the norms of Western culture.
They conducted research on attachment type, suggesting an ‘ideal’ attachment type where babies show moderate distress upon separation
This led to misinterpretation of cross cultural child rearing practises that deviated from the American standards.
For example, Japanese infants were more likely to be classified as insecurely attached due to showing high distress upon separation. This creates the belief that other cultures have a less ‘desirable’ attachment due to Western ethnocentrism
20
Q
Define cultural relativism
A
The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
21
Q
Differentiate between ‘emic’ and ‘etic’
A
- Etic: studying behavior outside a given culture and attempting to describe these behaviors as universal
- Emic: studying behaviors from within a culture, identifying behavior SPECIFIC to that culture.
( PROPOSED BY BERRY )
22
Q
How was Ainsworth’s research guilty of imposed etic (cultural relativism)
A
The research studied behavior inside of one culture (American) and then assumed that their perceived ideal attachment type (and methodology) could be applied universally.
23
Q
Apart from Ainsworth’s research, what is another example of imposed etic?
A
In psychopathology, defining abnormality is an example of imposed etic.
This can be seen in ‘deviation from ideal mental health’ where independence from other people is on Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health.
Different countries approach the notion of independence differently, such as between collectivist and individualist cultures.
24
Q
Evaluate culture bias
A
- Ethnic stereotyping
A limitation of culture bias is that it can result in prejudice against groups of people. Gould explained how the first IQ tests piloted during WW1 on soldiers led to eugenic social policies in the US.
Army recruits were subject to an IQ test that had many ethnocentric items on it, such as assuming that every group would know the names of presidents. In the results, African-American and Balkan recruits scored the lowest. Rather than interpreted as weaknesses in the test design, this was used to inform racial discourse about genetic inferiority, deeming minorities ‘feeble-minded’.
This illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice. - Classical studies.
A limitation of cultural bias is that many of the most influential studies are culturally biased.
Cultural bias is present in multiple defining studies in social influence such as Milgram’s obedience study and Asch’s conformity study that only conducted experiments on US participants with white and middle class backgrounds.
Replications of Asch’s experiment in collectivist cultures found significantly higher rates of conformity than the individualist US. This suggests that understanding of topics such as social influence cannot be generalized, and should only be applied to the culture conducted in. - Globalization
A further limitation of cultural bias is that in an age of increased media globalization, one can argue that distinguishing between individualist and collectivist culture is less significant or no longer applies.
The traditional argument that individualist cultures value individualism/independence whilst collectivist cultures value society and community. Despite this, a Japanese study found that 14/15 studies comparing the US and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism - making the definition seem too simplistic. This suggests that cultural bias in research may be less of an issue in the modern day. - Cultural psychology.
A strength of cultural bias is that it has led to the emergence of cultural psychology.
Cultural psychology is the study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experience, being an emerging field which incorporates sociology, anthropology and political science. Cultural psychologists avoid ethnocentric assumptions through embracing an emic approach. They conduct studies within their cultural context, using local researchers and culturally based techniques. This suggests modern psychologists are now mindful of the dangers of cultural bias and actively strive to avoid it.
25
What is the free will and determinism debate?
It contemplates whether we have free will (the ability to make choices without constraint) or if we are the product of internal or external influences that determine behavior.
26
What approaches are on the free will or determinism side?
- Biological approach: suggests causes for behavior are internal (determinism)
- Behaviorist approach: suggests causes for behavior are external (determinism)
- Humanistic approach: suggests we have free will.
27
What is free will?
The notion that humans can make choices and their behavior/thoughts are not determined by internal or external forces.
In this, we are self-determining despite the action of these forces and we can reject them.
28
What is determinism?
An approach which suggests that we are governed by external or internal forces and free-will is non-existent.
(There are hard and soft versions of determinism)
29
What is **hard** determinism? (fatalism)
The idea that all human behavior has a cause and, in principle, it is possible to identify and describe these causes.
It ALWAYS assumes that everything we think and do is dictated by internal or external forces out of our control.
30
What is **soft** determinism and what approach is it seen in?
- An idea that suggests that, whilst it is objective to explain what determines behavior, this does not detract from the freedom to make rational conscious choices (William James - Philosopher)
- Seen in the cognitive approach
31
What are the 2 subtypes of determinism?
- Hard determinism
- Soft determinism
32
What are the types of determinism in relation to approaches?
- Biological determinism
The biological approach emphasizes the role of biological determinism for behavior, such as the influence of the autonomic nervous system on the stress response or genetics in developing mental disorders.
Modern biological psychologists, however, recognize mediating influences from the environment.
- Environmental determinism
In the behavioral approach, BF Skinner described free will as an 'illusion', according to this, all behavior is a result of conditioning.
This implies that although we believe we are acting independently, our experience of 'choice' is merely a result of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us.
- Psychic determinism.
Seen in the psychodynamic approach, Freud also believed free will is an illusion and emphasized the influence of biological drives and instincts.
He believed human behavior is determined by unconscious conflict repressed in childhood. In this, there is no such thing as an accident and even a slip of the tongue (parapraxes) can be explained by the unconscious.
33
What is the scientific emphasis on casual explanations (free will vs determinism)
The basic principle in science that every event in the universe has a cause, and causes are explained using general laws (hard determinism)
Knowledge of causes and forming laws are important as it allows scientists to predict and control future events.
In psychology, **lab experiments** are used as it enables researchers to demonstrate **casual relationships** where all **variables are controlled**.
34
Evaluate free will vs determinism
- PRO-FREE WILL: practical value of free will
A strength of free will is its practical value.
The common sense view is that humans exercise free will on a daily basis, yet even if this is false, thinking we do exercise choice can improve mental health.
This was seen in a study into adolescents who had a strong belief in fatalism - that their lives were 'decided' by events out of their control. The study found that these adolescents were at a much higher risk of developing depression. This links to social influence in the fact that people who exhibit an external locus of control tend to be less optimistic.
This suggests that, even if we don't have free will, the fact we believe we do may have a positive impact on mind and behavior.
- ANTI-FREE WILL: Neurological counter evidence
A limitation of free will is that brain scan evidence does not support the idea of free will, instead supporting more determinist processes.
Libet et al. instructed participants to choose a random moment to flick their hand whilst he measured activity (readiness potential) in their brain.
Participants had to state when they felt the conscious will to move.
The findings showed that the unconscious brain activity leading up to the movement came around half a second before the participants stated their will to move. This could be interpreted as our basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we are aware of them.
- ANTI-DETERMINISM: The law
A limitation of determinism is how it operates in the legal system around responsibility.
The hard determinist stance is that individual choice is not the cause of behavior. This is an extreme stance when considering law. This is not consistent in how the legal system works. In a court of law, offenders are held responsible for their actions. The main principle is that the offender exercised free will in committing the crime, hence being prosecuted. This implies that determinist arguments may not work in real world situations.
35
What is the nature nurture debate?
A debate concerned with the extent to which aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited or acquired characteristics
36
Is the nature nurture debate really a debate and why?
- It’s not generally a debate
- Characteristics arise from a combination of both genes and environment (phenotype)
37
What is meant by nature in the nature-nurture debate?
Any aspect of behaviour that is inherited or hereditary.
Descartes argued human characteristics - and some aspects of knowledge - are innate.
This argues that psychological characteristics (intelligence and personality) are determined by biological factors just as physical characteristics are
38
What is nurture in the nature nurture debate?
An approach that argues the influence of experience and the environment on behaviour.
John Locke: the mind is a ‘blank state’
Lenner: Different levels of the environment including prenatal factors and post natal factors
39
What is meant by the relative importance of heredity and the environment?
Psychologists are likely to ask the RELATIVE CONTRIBUTION of each influence, meaning the nature-nurture debate is about discerning how nature and nurture interact.
40
How would you measure nature or nurture?
- Use a correlation coefficient
This is the degree to which two people share a similar trait - called CONCORDANCE.
Concordance provides an estimate of the extent to which the trait is inherited called HERITABILITY
41
What is heritability?
The proportion of differences between individuals in a population (in regards to a particular trait) due to genetic variation.
Heritability goes from a figure of .01 (1%) to 1.0 (100%)
.01 means genes contribute nothing and 1.0 means that genes are the only reason for individual differences
42
What is the interactionist approach in nature-nurture?
A way to explain the development of behavior in terms of a range of factors, including biological and psychological. Most factors will combine in a way that can't be predicted by each one separately - THEY INTERACT
43
Define heredity
The genetic transmission of both mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another
44
What is the heritability figure for IQ?
.5 - half a persons intelligence is determined by genetic factors whereas the other half must be environmental
45
What are 3 features of the nature-nurture debate?
- Interactionist approach (and relative contribution)
- Diathesis stress model
- Epigenetics
46
What is an example of an interactionist approach surrounding nature vs nurture?
- Bowlby attachment type vs Kagan
Bowlby claimed that an infants attachment type is determined by the warmth and continuity of parental love (ENVIRONMENTAL), Kagan proposed a baby's innate personality (temperament) also affects attachment relationship.
THEREFORE, nature **creates** nurture (the parents response) so environment and heredity will interact.
47
Why do psychologists ask the relative contribution in the nature-nurture debate?
Psychologists, in response to the interactionist approach, are likely to ask what the **relative contribution** of each influence is.
This means they will discuss how nature and nurture interact.
48
What is the diathesis-stress model in nature-nurture and what is an example?
The diathesis-stress model suggests behavior is caused by a biological or environmental vulnerability, only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental 'trigger'
Example: OCD, a person can inherit a genetic vulnerability for OCD and may not develop the disorder. But, when combined with a psychological trigger such as a traumatic experience it can result in the disorder appearing.
49
Define epigenetics
Epigenetics refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing genes themselves - this happens throughout and is caused by interaction with the environment.
50
How does epigenetics work in the nature nurture debate?
Aspects of our lifestyle (such as smoking to trauma) leave 'marks' on our DNA (genes), which will switch genes on or off.
This explains why factors such as smoking have lifelong influence after quitting, it changes the way genes are EXPRESSED.
These epigenetic changes can influence genetic codes of children, as well as grandchildren.
This means there is a third element into the nature-nurture debate - experiences of previous generations
51
Evaluate the nature-nurture debate
- Real world application in genetic counselling
A strength of the nature-nurture debate is real world application.
Research suggests OCD is highly heritable, having a heritability of .76.
Such understanding can inform genetic counselling as it is important to understand that high heritability does not necessarily guarantee the disorder will develop.
This means people with a high genetic risk of OCD can receive advice about the likelihood of the disorder and preventative measures to take.
This implies the nature nurture debate is not merely theoretical but also practical to understand the relationship between these two.
- Adoption studies.
A strength of research into nature-nurture is the use of adoption studies.
Adoption studies are a useful tool as they separate the competing influences of nature-nurture. If adoptive children are found to be similar to their adoptive parents, this suggests environment (nurture) has a bigger influence and VICE VERSA.
A meta-analysis supports this, it was found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of variance in aggression.
This shows how research can separate the influences of nature and nurture to objectively look for their relative contribution.
- No separate entity (niche-picking)
A limitation is that research suggests that this approach may be misguided, suggesting nature and nurture are NOT distinct entities that can be separated.
According to Plomin, people create their own 'nurture' by actively selecting environments more appropriate for their 'nature'.
For example, a naturally aggressive child is likely to surround themselves with more children of similar behaviors who 'choose' their environment accordingly. These chosen companions further influence development of behavior. This is referred to as 'niche-picking'. This suggests that it doesn't make sense to look at evidence categorizing behavior into nature or nurture.
- Epigenetics evidence.
A strength of the nature-nurture debate is support for epigenetics.
Events from WW2 demonstrated how environmental impacts can span generations. This is seen on a study on the 'Dutch winter hunger' in which Nazi's blocked food distribution to the Dutch and killed 22000 people.
It was reported that women who had become pregnant during the famine went on to have low birth weight babies and these children were 2x more likely to develop schizophrenia compared to the average population.
This supports the view that experiences of previous generations can leave epigenetic 'markers' on DNA that influence health of offspring.
52
What is holism?
Holism is an argument or theory that proposes that it only makes sense to study the individuals **indivisible** system rather than constituent parts
53
What is reductionism?
Reductionism is the belief that human behavior is best understood by studying smaller constituent parts.
54
List an approach that embraces holism and another that embraces reductionism
- Holism: humanistic approach or psychodynamic approach
- Reductionism: Behaviorist approach
55
Using an example, what does holism focus on and what methods does it use to obtain data?
- Example: humanistic psychologists.
Humanistic psychologists focus on the individuals experiences, not reducing it to smaller units.
They use qualitative methods to investigate the self - themes are analyzed rather than reduced.
56
What does reductionism focus on and what methods does it use to obtain data?
Reductionism focuses on analysing behavior by breaking it down into its constituwent parts.
This is based on the scientific principle of parsimony - all phenomena should be explained using the simplest or most reduced (lowest level) principles
57
Name the 6 levels of explanation in psychology (reductionism) using OCD as an example.
- **Sociocultural** level (OCD interrupts social relationships)
- **Psychological** level (A person experiences anxiety)
- **Physical level** (movements such as washing hands)
- **Environmental/behavioral** level (learning experiences)
- **Physiological** level (abnormal functioning in the frontal lobes)
- **Neurochemical** level (under production of serotonin)
58
How do the 6 levels of explanation work in relation to reductionism?
Each level is more reductionist than the one before.
For example, the sociocultural level is the least reductionist and the neurochemical level is the most reductionist. (it is NOT simple, just more narrow)
59
What are the two types of reductionism?
- Biological reductionism
- Environmental (**stimulus-response**) reductionism
60
What is biological reductionism?
A form of reductionism which attempts to explain behavior at a reduced biological level (such as genes)
This includes neurochemical and physiological levels, accompanied by evolutionary and genetic influences.
61
How do biological reductionist arguments work with an example
- Backwards.
Drugs to treat OCD that increase serotonin production have been found to be effective in treating OCD. Therefore, working backwards, low serotonin may be a cause of OCD - OCD has been REDUCED to level of neurotransmitter activity.
62
What is environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism?
A form of reductionism which attempts to explain all behavior in terms of stimulus-response links, learned through experience.
63
What approach uses environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism and give an example related to a topic studied.
The behaviorist approach is based on environmental reductionism, proposing all behavior is learned and acquired through interactions w/ the environment.
An example is the learning theory of attachment.
This REDUCES the idea of love (between baby and food provider) to a learned association between the food provider (neutral stimulus) and food (unconditioned stimulus - resulting in pleasure (conditioned stimulus)
64
Evaluate holism and reductionism.
- PRO HOLISM: Higher understanding.
A strength of holism is that some behaviors can only be understood at a holistic level. Often, there are aspects of social behavior that will only emerge within a group context so it cannot be understood in terms of individuals. This means it operates at the highest level of explanation - the SOCIOCULTURAL LEVEL.
For example, conformity to social roles with prisoners and guards cannot be understood using reductionist methods. It is the interaction between people and the behavior of the group on a social level that is important. If attempting reductionism to this, there is no conformity 'gene' so social processes like conformity can only be explained at a more holistic level.
This suggests that, for some behaviors, higher explanations can provide a more valid account.
- ANTI HOLISM: Lacks practical value.
A limitation of holism is that it lacks practical value.
Holistic accounts of human behavior tend to become more harder to apply as they increase in complexity.
This instates a practical dilemma. If we accept, in a humanist perspective, that there are multiple factors to developing depression then it becomes difficult to understand the most influential factor. The consequence of this is that treatment and identifying risk factors rely on the most significant in order to tailor treatment so holism cannot be overly effective in this. It is difficult to know what to prioritize as the basis for therapy. This suggests behavior explained holistically may lack practical application.
- PRO REDUCTIONISM: Scientific approach
A strength of reductionism is that it often forms the basis of a scientific approach.
In order to conduct controlled and objective investigations we operationalize variables - breaking down target behaviors into measurable constituent parts. This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations in a way which makes it objective and reliable. For example, Ainsworth's research on attachment operationalized component behaviors such as separation anxiety.
This, being a more scientific approach, offers greater credibility.
- ANTI-REDUCTIONISM: Oversimplification.
A limitation of reductionism is that it's narrow nature has been accused of oversimplifying complex psychological phenomena, reducing validity.
Explanations that operate on a physiological or neurochemical level overly ignore social context in which the behavior occurs - where the behavior may derive its meaning. For example, the physiological process of pointing a finger is the same regardless of the context, however, simply looking at the physiological will not explain the motivation behind this action.
This suggests that reductionist explanations can only form part of an explanation as it disregards other factors.
65
What is the idiographic approach?
An approach to research that focuses on the individual case as a means of understanding behavior, rather than formulating general laws of behavior.
66
What is the nomothetic approach?
An approach to research that aims to study human behavior through the development of general principles and universal laws.
67
Who do nomothetic researchers investigate as opposed to idiographic?
- Nomothetic researchers suggest psychology should study large and varied groups to make generalizations (ESTABLISH NORMS)
- Idiographic researchers suggest psychology should study individuals as obtaining lots of detailed information we can understand behavior better.
68
What form of data is idiographic research usually in?
- Qualitative data
Most idiographic research is qualitative, usually from first hand accounts (case studies)
Participants would be interviewed in depth and focus may lie on particular facets of human behavior. Such data is then analyzed and emergent themes are identified.
These conclusions may then help others with similar experiences through determining best practice.
69
What approaches favor the idiographic approach?
- The psychodynamic approach
- The humanistic approach
70
Give 2 examples of idiographic research related to approaches.
- Carl Rogers, a humanistic psychologist explained the process of self development including the role of unconditional positive regard.
He derived this through in-depth conversations with clients in therapy.
- Freud made careful observations of individuals for the basis of his explanations of human nature, for example the case study of Little Hans that was used to explain the formation of phobias.
71
What is the main aim of the nomothetic approach?
Generalization in order to create 'laws' (creating general principles of behavior) which then could be applied in individual situations.
72
What form of data is the nomothetic approach usually in?
- Quantitative research.
Nomothetic research more closely fits the 'scientific method'.
Hypotheses are formulated, samples are assessed and numerical data is then produced and analyzed for statistical significance.
It seeks to quantify human behavior.
73
What 2 approaches favor the nomothetic approach?
- The behaviorist approach
- The biological approach
74
Give 2 examples of nomothetic research
- B.F Skinner studied animals to develop general laws of learning, his research looked at one aspect of behavior in animals yet he established general laws.
- Biopsychology may use a small sample, such as Sperry's split brain research which involved repeated testing and acted in support of understanding hemispheric lateralization.
75
Which (of nomothetic and idiographic) is objective and subjective?
- Nomothetic: objective
- Idiographic: subjective
76
What is the key difference between the idiographic approach and nomothetic approach?
How each relates to subjectivity and objectivity.
- Objectivity applies to the nomothetic approach as establishing laws of behavior is only possible if methods to assess this are standardized and objective. This ensures true replication across samples, removing contamination of bias or other variables.
- Subjectivity applies to the idiographic approach as idiographic researchers tend not to believer objectivity is possible in psychological research. It is individual experience in it's unique context which is important rather than an underlying law.
77
Evaluate the idiographic approach and the nomothetic approach
- ANTI-IDIOGRAPHIC: Restricting
One limitation of the idiographic approach is that it has a more restricting and narrow nature.
Only focusing on individual means that meaningful generalizations cannot be made without further examples, there is no adequate baseline to compare behavior. In addition, the methods utilized in idiographic research such as case studies tend to be less scientific due to relying on subjective interpretation which is open to BIAS.
This suggests that it is difficult to build effective general theories of human behavior in the absence of nomothetic styled research.
- PRO-IDIOGRAPHIC: Complete account
A strength of the idiographic approach is that it contributes to the nomothetic approach.
The idiographic approach uses in-depth qualitative methods of investigation to provide a strong global description of one individual. For this, idiographic approach can be praised for complementing the nomothetic approach by shedding light on general laws or more likely challenging them. For example, idiographic research on a single case such as HM may generate hypotheses for future study. Idiographic case studies reveal important insights to our understanding. This suggests that even though the focus is on fewer individuals, the idiographic approach can still support the forming of 'scientific laws' of behavior.
- ANTI-NOMOTHETIC: Losing the person
A limitation of the nomothetic approach is loss of understanding of the individual.
The nomothetic approach is occupied with general laws, prediction and control - being accused of 'losing the whole person'.
For example: knowing there is a 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia gives us little insight into what life is like for someone diagnosed with it. Understanding subjective experience of schizophrenia may prove more useful when devising treatment options.
This means, in searching generalities, the nomothetic approach may fail to relate to experience.
- PRO-NOMOTHETIC: Scientific credibility.
A strength of the nomothetic approach is that it fits into the aims of science.
The processes involved in nomothetic research are similar to those utilized in natural sciences due to prioritizing objectivity through standardization, control and statistical testing. This suggests that the nomothetic approach raise psychology's status as a science.
78
What is meant by ethical implications?
The consequence of any research in terms of the effects on individual participants or on the way certain groups of people are perceived - this can create consequences on a higher societal level.
79
What is meant by social sensitivity?
Socially sensitive research is research in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants involved or the demographic represented by the research.
80
What do ethical implications concern and how does this relate to social sensitivity?
Consequences that psychological research (studies/theories) may have.
Some areas of research have a greater social sensitivity than others.
81
What research has lower social sensitivity and ethical implications
Research on long term memory, for example.
The student population is unlikely to have consequences for individual participants, or broader social groups the participants represent. In addition, there is unlikely any consequences for social policy.
82
What research can be considered to have high ethical implications
- Research on depression.
An individual participant may reveal personal information that can be later accessed by a prospective employer.
The findings of a study may suggest people with depression never fully recover so are unreliable employees.
Social policy can be effected as research can inform NHS on preferred treatment options (positive implication)
83
What are 3 parts of the research process to be mindful of in relation to social sensitivity and ethical implications? (IMPLICATIONS FOR THE RESEARCH PROCESS)
- Research question
- Dealing with participants
- Ways in which findings are used.
84
How should **research questions** be handled in socially sensitive research, according to Sieber and Stanley and why?
(**Research questions, ways of dealing with participants and ways in which findings are used**)
- Ways in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the ways in which findings are interpreted.
- For example: research into relationships have been guilty of a form of 'heterosexual bias's within which homosexual relationships were judged according to heterosexual norms.
85
Why is **dealing with participants** important in implications for the research process?
Issues such as informed consent, confidentiality and protection from harm are important in socially sensitive research.
For example, a study on domestic abuse may have a participant worry than an ex-partner will find out about the study and may be distressed by recounting experiences. Such participants may provide informed consent at the start without fully understanding research.
86
Why is **the ways in which findings are used** important in implications for the research process?
Researchers should consider in advance how findings are used.
This is especially important as research findings may be seen as giving scientific credence to existing prejudices (such as studies on the ethnic basis of intelligence).
Furthermore, socially sensitive information is what the media will be interested in and publicize.
87
Evaluate ethical implications (and socially sensitive research)
- Benefits for research group.
One strength of socially sensitive research is that it may have benefits for the group who have been studied.
One example is for homosexual individuals, until 1973 the DSM-1 listed homosexuality as a sociopathic personality disorder before changing. This change has been accredited to the Kinsley report that included anonymous interviews with over 5000 men and 6000 women. The report concluded that homosexuality was a typical expression of human sexual behavior.
This illustrates the importance of conducting socially sensitive research, in this case challenging the pathologizing of demographics involved in 'taboo' topics.
- Potential for social control
A limitation of ethical implications is that it can form a basis for social control and subsequent violation of human rights.
For example, the principle targets of the American sterilization programs were the intellectually disabled and mentally ill, as well as the deaf, blind and physically deformed - on the basis of research. This extended to women regarded as promiscuous, women with children born out of marriage and black women. For example, in Sunflower county, 60% of African American women were sterilized without knowledge. This signifies that ethical implications that determine social policy can be weaponized easily.
- Real world application
A strength of socially sensitive research is that certain groups (policy makers) rely on research related to socially sensitive issues. The government is reliant on research when developing important social policies, for example on childcare, education, mental health and crime. It is preferable to base policies on scientific research rather than political motivation. Organizations are responsible for collecting, analyzing and disseminating statistics, with such data being used in psychological research. This suggests psychologists play an important role in providing high quality research into socially sensitive topics.
- Poor research design.
One limitation is that poor research design leads to erroneous findings that, once released publicly, continue to impact many.
This is seen in Burt's fraudulent research that founded the 11+ that still exists as a selection tool for grammar schools.
This was based on reasoning that genetic potential is evident at this age, despite this having flawed design. Therefore, any research on socially sensitive topics needs to be planned with great care to ensure validity of findings. This shows how findings need to be conducted with caution due to enduring effects on groups of people.
88
What comes under the gender bias sub-topic?
- Universality and bias
- Alpha bias
- Beta bias
- Androcentrism
89
What comes under the culture bias sub-topic?
- Universality and bias (revisited with WEIRD)
- Ethnocentrism
- Cultural relativism
- Emic and Etic
90
What comes under the free will/determinism sub-topic?
- Free will
- Determinism (includes SOFT and HARD determinism)
- Types of determinism: biological determinism, environmental determinism and psychic determinism
- Scientific emphasis on casual explanation
91
What comes under the nature/nurture sub-topic?
- Nature and nurture
- How nature nurture is measured: correlation coefficient (concordance)
- Heritability
- The interactionist approach
- Diathesis stress model
- Epigenetics
92
What comes under the holism/reductionism sub-topic?
- Holism and what method is used to investigate it
- Reductionism and what method is used to investigate
- Levels of explanation in psychology
- Types of reductionism: biological reductionism and environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism
93
What comes under the idiographic/nomothetic sub-topic?
- Idiographic approach
- Nomothetic approach
- Whether they are qualitative or quantitative
- Examples of idiographic research and nomothetic research
- Objectivity vs subjectivity
94
What comes under the ethical issues and dealing with it sub-topic?
- Ethical implications
- Social sensitivity
- Implications for the research process including: research questions, dealing with participants and the way in which findings are used.
