Aggression Flashcards

Question

From twin studies on aggression, what is the accepted heritability of aggression?

Answer 1

- Genetic factors account for 50% of variance in aggression (heritability)

Answer 2

- Coccaro studied adult male *monozygotic* and *dizygotic* twins The aggressive behaviour in this was defined as direct physical assault. - Coccaro found a concordance rate of 50% of monozygotic twins (who share 100% of the DNA, and 50% both committed direct physical assault), compared to only 19% for DZ twins. - Corresponding figures for verbal aggression was 28% for MZ and 7% for DZ.

Answer 3

- MZ twins share 100% of their DNA and DZ twins share 50% - We would expect to find greater similarities for aggressive behaviour between *MZ twins* (assuming genetic factors is the most significant influence on aggression). - MZ and DZ twins are raised in the same environment, but MZ twins have a greater degree of genetic similarities than DZ.

Answer 4

- Rhee and Waldman

Answer 5

- Adoption studies are based in the 'nature-nurture' debate. - Similarities between an adopted child and their biological parents with aggressive behaviour suggests genetic influences are operating. - Similarities between an adopted child and their adoptive parents suggests environmental influences are operating.

Answer 6

- Rhee and Waldman conducted a meta-analysis of adoption studies, looking at direct aggression and anti-social behaviour. - It was found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the *variance* in aggression, which was more or less in line with twin studies findings.

Answer 7

- Lea and Chambers - Brunner

Answer 8

- The MAOA gene controls the production of the enzyme MAO-A (monoamine oxidase-A) - The enzyme regulates the neurotransmitter serotonin - which is involved in impulsive aggression.

Answer 9

- MAOA is the gene that controls production of MAO-A - MAO-A is an enzyme that regulates serotonin

Answer 10

Monoamine oxidase-A

Answer 11

- MAOA-L (low activity variant)

Answer 12

- MAOA-L results in low activity in the monoamine oxidase-A enzyme (MAO-A) - which results in *MAO-A deficiency*.

Answer 13

- Lea and Chambers research outlined that 56% of male Maori possessed the MAOA-L gene variant, compared to 34% of Caucasian males. - Historically, the Maori's had a reputation for being ferocious warriors, which led to the MAOA gene being nicknamed the 'warrior gene'.

Answer 14

- Brunner cemented the link between the MAOA-L gene variant and aggression. - 28 male members of a large Dutch family were studied who were repeatedly involved in impulsively aggressive behaviour such as rape, attempted murder and physical assault. - These men were found to have abnormally low levels of MAO-A enzymes, and possessed the MAOA-L gene variant, which led to this diagnosis being called 'Brunner's syndrome'.

Answer 15

Frazzetto et al.

Answer 16

- The idea that genes are crucial influences on genetic behaviour, *but do not work in isolation.* - For example, MAOA-L is linked to aggressive behaviour in adulthood, but only when combined with early traumatic experiences.

Answer 17

- Frazzetto et al found an association between higher levels of anti-social behaviour and the MAOA-L variant in adult males. HOWEVER, this was only the case in those who had experienced severe trauma such as sexual or physical abuse within the *first 15 years of life*. - Those who had not experienced trauma in the *first 15 years of life* did not tend to display high aggression in adulthood, even if they possessed the MAOA-L gene variant. - This is evidence of a gene-environment interaction (diathesis-stress)

Answer 18

- Research support One strength for genetic factors is support for the role of MAOA in aggression, even in the converse. A study was conducted involving male participants with the MAOA-L variant AND the MAOA-H variants, who took part in a money-distributing game. It was found males with the high activity variant (MAOA-H) were more co-operative and made fewer aggressive moves compared to those with MAOA-L. This finding further cements the relationship between MAOA gene activity and aggression. - Environmental interference counterpoint A counterpoint to the above 'money-distributing' study is that there were aspects found in the investigation that showed non-genetic factors were crucial. It was found participants with the MAOA-L gene variant behaved co-operatively rather than aggressively when informed that others were behaving co-operatively (giving money). This showed that knowledge of a social norm could partially determine how aggressive or co-operative MAOA-L participants were, regardless of a genetic predisposition to aggression. Therefore genes, in this case, were suppressed by environmental factors (knowing others actions), contributing to the behaviors displayed. - Complex link One limitation of the MAOA-serotonin-aggression link is that the precise mechanism of what occurs is unclear. This is seen through conflicting evidence, such as Virkkunnen linking aggression to low serotonin levels, against the idea of MAOA's operation. The MAOA-L gene causes MAO-A enzyme deficiency which, if following logical course, should lead to higher serotonin. This is because low activity means MAO-A will deactivate serotonin less - leaving more serotonin for synaptic transmission. In people with the MAOA-L variant, it may be more accurate to say serotonin levels are *disrupted* rather than higher or lower than normal. This shows that the relationship between the MAOA-L gene, serotonin and aggression is not yet fully understood. - Problems with twin studies. Another limitation of genetic factors in aggression is that twin studies may lack validity. In every pair of twins, both individuals share the same environment (assuming they were both raised together) However, DZ twins may not share their environments exactly the same. In research assuming they do is called the **EQUAL ENVIRONMENT ASSUMPTION**. The EEA may be wrong as one aspect of the environment is the way they are treated by others. MZ twins can be treated very similarly, especially by parents (such as praise for aggression), whereas for DZ twins - they tend to be treated in less similar ways. This means that concordance rates may be inflated by this, so genetic influences on aggression may not be as great as twin studies suggest.

Answer 19

An explanation that seeks to understand the innate behaviour of animals (including humans) by studying them in their natural environments.

Answer 20

The main function of aggression is adaptive, and doesn't have to be learned due to it being innate - Lorenz.

Answer 21

- Benefits species survival: In a fight the 'defeated' animal is rarely killed, but forced to relocate territory elsewhere. This means that members of a species spread over a wider geographical area, reducing competition over resources which aids survival. - To establish dominance hierarchy Aggression establishes hierarchy, for example, chimpanzees use aggression to climb a social hierarchy. The higher they are on the dominance hierarchy, they gain a special status such as mating rights over females.

Answer 22

The ethological explanation with establishing dominance hierarchy in young children

Answer 23

Pettit et al.

Answer 24

- Pettit et al found aggression to establish a dominance hierarchy can occur in humans. - He studied groups of young children and observed how aggression played a role in developing dominance hierarchies. This would be adaptive (and naturally selected) because dominance over others brings benefits such as access to resources.

Answer 25

Aggressive behaviour carried out in a set order.

Answer 26

- Fights between animals of the same species often produced little physical damage - Most aggressive behaviour consisted of prolonged periods of **ritualistic signalling** (such as displaying claws and teeth). - Intra-specific aggressive confrontations end with **ritual appeasement displays** - indicating acceptance of defeat. This inhibits any more aggression from the victor whilst preventing any further damage to the loser. (For example, wolves expose their jugular)

Answer 27

- It is adaptive as if every aggressive encounter ended with death of a combatant, it could threaten the existence of the species.

Answer 28

An inbuilt biological structure or process (for example a network of neurones, or circuit in the brain). These structures or processes are activated by an external stimulus, triggering the IRM to 'release' a specific sequence of behaviors (FIXED ACTION PATTERN)

Answer 29

A sequence of stereotyped preprogrammed behaviors triggered by an innate releasing mechanism.

Answer 30

- **Stereotyped** (unchanging sequence of behaviors) - **Universal** (same behaviour in every individual of the species) - **Unaffected by learning** (same regardless of experience) - **'Ballistic'** (it follows an inevitable course and cannot be altered before completion) - **Single-purpose** (only occurs in specific situations) - **A response to an identifiable, specific sign stimulus** (or, if it involves intra-specific communication it is called a *releaser*, rather than a sign stimulus)

Answer 31

- *Procedure* Male sticklebacks are highly territorial in spring mating season, and they will develop a red spot on their underbelly. If another male enters their territory, a sequence of highly stereotyped aggressive behaviors is initiated (FAP). The *sign stimulus* (particular feature of a stimulus) that triggers the IRM is the sight of the red spot. Tinbergen presented male sticklebacks with a series of wooden models, one a realistic model without a red spot and others which were random shapes with red spots. - *Findings* Regardless of shape, if the model had a red spot the male stickleback would aggressively display or even attack it. If there was no red spot, there was no aggression even when the model looked highly realistic. It was also found that these aggressive FAPs were unchanging from one encounter to the other. Once triggered, the FAP always ran its course to completion without any further stimulus (ballistic).

Answer 32

- Research support. One strength of the ethological explanation in aggression is evidence to support it's central claims. A study on monkeys looked at FAPs as part of ethology. Infant monkeys were isolated from their mothers to avoid learnt behaviors. The isolated monkeys were presented photographs of other monkeys displaying either threatening or non-threatening poses. It was found that the monkeys displayed defensive poses only to the threatening photographs, despite never learning it. This suggests monkeys are born with innate sets of behaviors (FAP) that are triggered when shown aggression. - Cultural differences in aggression. A limitation to the ethological explanation of aggression is evidence that aggressive behaviour differs culturally, when intra-specific to humans and even within the same country. It was found that a type of homicide involving reactive aggression was more common in white men from the Southern states compared to white men in the Northern states. Reactive aggression is a response to threats or insults from someone else. It was concluded that this difference stems from a Southern 'culture of honor' which is less present in the North, hence their lower reactive homicide rates. This means aggressive behaviour cam come from a learned social norm rather than universal instinct. To conclude, culture appears to have potential to override innate predispositions, which is hard to explain ethologically. - Evidence against ritualistic aggression. One limitation of the ethological explanation is that intra-specific aggression is not just ritualistic. Jane Goodall observed a 4 year war in which male chimps from one community killed all the the members of another systematically. On some occasions, a victim would be held down by rival chimps while others hit it in prolonged attacks. The violence continued even though victims offered appeasement signals. Unlike the ethological prediction, appeasement displays did not inhibit aggressive behaviour from the attackers. This challenges the ethological view that intra-specific aggression is evolved to be self-limiting and relatively harmless. - FAPs not fixed Another limitation is that Lorenz's original view of fixed action patterns are outdated. Lorenz saw FAPs as innate and unchanging, however it is modernly accepted that FAPs are actually greatly influenced by environmental factors and learning experiences. For example, aggressive FAPs are made up of several behaviors in a series. The duration of each behaviour varies from one individual to another, even between encounters for the same individuals. As they are now seen as modifiable from experience, many ethologists prefer the term '**MODAL BEHAVIOUR PATTERN** to reflect this. Therefore, patterns of aggressive behaviour are much more flexible than Lorenz thought.

Answer 33

An explanation for aggression based on the idea of natural selection, so any aggressive behaviour that increases chance of survival and ultimately successful reproduction is continued.

Answer 34

- Sexual jealousy is a major motivator of aggressive behaviour in males because, unlike females, males cannot be sure that their child is their own. - *Paternity uncertainty* is a result of a threat of *CUCKOLDRY*, where a male may raise offspring that is not his own. This is evolutionary as any investment in offspring that does not share genes is a waste of resources. - It instead contributes to the rivals genes and leaves fewer resources to be expended on future offspring. - Males who could avoid cuckoldry were more reproductively successful, so aggressive strategies in psychological mechanisms adapted to secure their partners fidelity. - IT IS ADAPTIVE.

Answer 35

Wilson and Daly.

Answer 36

- **Direct guarding** (*male vigilance over a partners behaviour* such as checking their phone and who they're with) - **Negative inducements** (*issuing dire consequences for infidelity* such as threatening suicide).

Answer 37

- Wilson asked women to report mate retention strategies displayed by their partners, measured in terms of the extent to which they agreed to statements like "He insists on knowing who you are with at all times." - Women who did agree with such statements were 2x as likely to have experienced physical violence from their partners. Of these 73% required medical attention and 53% reported fearing for their lives. - This supports the view that mate retention strategies are linked to physical violence, as part of sexual jealousy.

Answer 38

- Bullying is the result of a power imbalance, so a more powerful individual uses deliberate aggression repeatedly against a weaker one. - Contrary to the view bullying is maladaptive (result of poor socialization or childhood abuse), the *evolutionary explanation* proposes that ancestors used bullying adaptively. - Bullying increased their chance of survival through promoting their own health and creating opportunities for reproduction.

Answer 39

Volk et al.

Answer 40

- Volk argued that characteristics associated with bullying behaviour are attractive to females. These include: dominance, acquisition of resources and strength. - Bullying wards of potential rivals, so it is naturally selected for reproductive success. For example, it affects health - seen in adolescent boys who gain a reputation for being tough. With an aggressive reputation, they are less likely to experience aggression due to others avoiding contact with them.

Answer 41

- In females, bullying usually occurs within a relationship, a method to control a partner. - Women use it to secure fidelity, so the partner will continue to provide resources for future offspring. So, it is *naturally selected, enhancing reproductive success*.

Answer 42

- Gender differences. A strength of the evolutionary theory of aggression is that it offers explanation as to why males and females differ in their use of aggression. There is excess research that shows gender differences in aggression - with some being explained by socialization, however, some can be explained in terms of adaptation. For example, it is argued (in a females case), it is not adaptive to be physically aggressive as it can jeopardize the survival of her and her offspring. So, a more adaptive strategy is verbal aggression to retain a partner and the resources provided. This explains why women tend to display verbal rather than physical aggression. Therefore, such arguments can provide support for an evolutionary basis of aggression. - Cultural differences One limitation is that there are substantial cultural differences in aggression, which challenges the universality claimed as part of the evolutionary explanation. In some cultures, aggression appears to be relatively non-existent - for example in the !Kung San people in Botswana. The !Kung San tribe were studied by anthropologists who found that they have a negative attitude towards use of aggression. Aggressive behaviour in this tribe is discouraged from childhood in both males and females, so aggressive acts are therefore rare. Those who use aggression face status and reputation being diminished. This means that cultural and social norms can CONSTRAIN aggressive behaviour. Therefore, since some cultures do not display aggressiveness, such behaviour may not necessarily be adaptive. - Counterpoint to !Kung San In contrast to the previous point, there is speculation at how 'harmless' the !Kung San are with aggression. Even with a culture of shunning aggression, it has been pointed out that the homicide rate is surprisingly high for those considered peaceful. These contradictions in findings may be a result of observer bias, so the observer is biased towards their own agenda and expectations, and also mislead by the particular sample of people observed. These methodological issues means that observation by outsiders may not be as valid as pictured. - Real world application Another strength of the evolutionary explanation is that principles can be used in initiatives to reduce bullying. Even with the approach of addressing the bully's perceived deficiencies, bullying is still prevalent. An alternative strategy can be used based on the view that bullying is adaptive. The "*Meaningful roles*" anti-bullying intervention aims to increase the costs of bullying and rewards of pro-social activity. For example, giving bullies roles and responsibilities in schools provides an alternate source of status. Therefore, viewing bullying as the result of an adaptation in evolution may lead to more effective anti-bullying interventions, being practical.

Answer 43

- The frustration-aggression hypothesis - Social learning theory - De-individuation

Answer 44

Any theory that argues aggression is a result of an interaction between an individuals characteristics and features of the situation in which the behaviour occurs

Answer 45

A social psychological theory that argues that aggression is always the outcome when we are prevented from achieving our goals.

Answer 46

'Frustration always leads to aggression, and aggression is always the result of frustration'

Answer 47

- Aggression is a psychological drive, akin to biological drives. - FRUSTRATION is experienced when our attempts to reach a goal are interfered with by an external factor. - The goal being blocked creates an aggressive drive - leading to aggressive thoughts and behaviours (violent fantasy or even verbal and physical outburst) - This removes the negative emotion, called *CATHARSIS* (psychodynamic). - The drive created by frustration is satisfied, reducing the drive and making further aggression less likely.

Answer 48

- *Cathartic*

Answer 49

- Cause may be too powerful (Individual may risk punishment) - Cause of frustration may be too abstract (such as economic situation or the government) - Cause may be unavailable at the time.

Answer 50

- Aggression is *displaced* onto an alternative that is not abstract and available. - This could be an inanimate object or younger sibling, for example.

Answer 51

The idea that, if we become frustrated we still might not behave aggressively. *Frustration merely creates a readiness.* - HOWEVER, presence of aggressive cues in the environment make acting upon this much more likely. - So... cues are an additional element in the frustration-aggression hypothesis.

Answer 52

- Berkowitz demonstrated the 'weapon effect' in a laboratory study. - Participants were given real electric shocks by confederates, creating anger and frustration. - The participants later had the opportunity to give fake electric shocks to the confederate. - The number of shocks was greater when there were two guns on the table compared to a control group with no guns. - The 'weapon effect' here supports Berkowitz's proposal that presence of aggressive environmental cues stimulates aggression.

Answer 53

- Geen - Berkowitz (weapon effect)

Answer 54

- **Procedure**: Male university students completed a jigsaw puzzle. Frustration was experimentally manipulated in 3 ways. 1) For some, the puzzle was impossible 2) In the second condition, time ran out as a confederate student kept interfering 3) In the third condition, a confederate insulted the participant as they failed to solve it. All participants later had the opportunity to give the confederate electric shocks. - **Findings**: The insulted participant group gave the strongest electric shocks, followed by the interfered with group and then the impossible task group. - All 3, however, selected more intense shocks compared to a control group of non-frustrated participants, outlining how frustration can result in aggression.

Answer 55

- Research support One strength of the FA hypothesis is research support for one of it's key concepts. A meta-analysis was conducted on 49 studies of displaced aggression, investigating situations in which aggressive behaviour had to be directed against a 'human target' other than the one who caused the frustration. The researchers concluded that *displaced aggression* is a reliable phenomenon. Frustrated participants who were provoked, yet unable to retaliate directly against the source were *significantly* more likely to aggress against an innocent party compared to those not provoked. This shows that frustration can lead to aggression against a weaker or more available target, a notion mentioned in the FA hypothesis. - Role of catharsis One limitation of the FA hypothesis is research showing aggression may not be cathartic as predicted. It was found, in a study, participants who vented their anger through repeatedly hitting a punchbag actually became *more* aggressive rather than less. It was observed that doing nothing, in fact, was more effective at reducing aggression than venting. It is, therefore, argued that using venting to reduce anger is likened to 'using petrol to put out a fire'. It does not appear to work, even for people who believe in it's value. This research challenges the validity of catharsis as a central assumption in the FA hypothesis. - Complexity in FA link. Another limitation is that the link between frustration and aggression is more complex than initially predicted. Very early in the development of the FA.h, it became clear that frustration does not always lead to aggression, and aggression can occur without frustration. So, there is nothing 'automatic' about the link between them. Someone who is frustrated can behave in different ways, not limited to aggressive behaviour - it can extend to helplessness, anxiousness or determination. Likewise, someone who behaves aggressively may have alternative reasons for it. This suggests that the FA.h is inadequate due to only explaining how aggression arises from specific emotional situations, and not others. - COUNTERPOINT: negative affect In counterpoint to this, Berkowitz reformulated the initial hypothesis to account for criticism. Berkowitz's *NEGATIVE AFFECT* theory argued that frustration is just one of many aversive stimuli that create negative feelings (*affect*), including loneliness, jealousy and pain. Aggressive behaviour is triggered by these negative feelings rather than frustration specifically. The outcome of frustration can also be a range of responses in *negative affect*, including but not limited to aggression. For example, one may feel frustrated at getting a poor grade yet become despaired, anxious or determined in response. Therefore, frustration (negative feelings) can form part of a wider and more comprehensive explanation for what causes aggression.

Answer 56

A way of explaining *aggressive* behaviour in terms of both direct and indirect reinforcement from observation

Answer 57

- Bandura acknowledged that aggression can be learned directly through principles of *operant conditioning* which includes positive and negative reinforcement alongside punishment. - For example: A child learns that snatching a toy off of another child aggressively is rewarding, so **direct reinforcement** makes the child more likely to behave aggressively again in a similar situation.

Answer 58

- Aggressive behaviour cannot often be explained by direct forms of learning, especially for humans. - An indirect mechanism - observational learning - accounts for social learning of most aggressive behaviors.

Answer 59

- Children acquire specific aggressive behaviors through observing aggressive models (parents, siblings, peers, media characters).

Answer 60

- Observation doesn't mean that the child will necessarily behave aggressively themselves. - The child needs to observe the *consequences* of the behaviour to reinforce it.

Answer 61

- In vicarious reinforcement, if the models aggressive behaviour is rewarded (or not punished), the child learns that aggression can be effective in getting what they want. - This **vicarious reinforcement** makes it more likely that the observing child will imitate the models aggressive behavior.

Answer 62

- **Vicarious punishment - If a models use of aggression to achieve a goal is punished, an observing child is less likely to imitate that specific behavior.

Answer 63

Cognitive conditions for social learning

Answer 64

- **Attention**: cognitive requirement that observer must pay attention to the aggression. - **Retention**: the observer must remember the models aggressive actions, to form a mental representation of how the behaviour is performed - **Reproduction**: the observer must transform the mental representation of aggression into a physical action, and they must appraise their ability to do this - **Motivation**: the observer needs a reason to imitate aggressive behaviour, depending on the expectation that it'd be rewarding in a specific situation.

Answer 65

- The extent to which we believe our actions will be successful in achieving a certain goal - This grows as a child's confidence in their ability to be aggressive grows as they learn it can bring rewards.

Answer 66

- An observer may watch a child gain a reward from acting aggressively, snatching a toy from another. - The observer learns they have the motor skills necessary to imitate it and it comes easy to them. - With a successful outcome of aggressive behaviour, sense of self-efficacy develops. - The child becomes confident that, because of their aggression being effective in the past, it will continue to be so in the future.

Answer 67

- Bandura's bobo doll

Answer 68

- **Procedure** Young children observed an adult model assaulting an inflatable toy: 'bobo doll'. Aggressive behaviors involved: throwing, kicking and hitting with a mallet which were accompanied by verbal outbursts. Following this, there was a short period of time in which children were not allowed to play with toys attractive to them, creating a degree of frustration. They were then taken to a room where there was a bobo doll, as well as other toys including ones the adult model had used. - **Findings** Without instruction, children imitated the behaviour that they had seen the model perform physically and verbally. The closeness of the imitation was significant in some cases - a virtually direct copy of what the children had observed including specific objects and phrases. Boys imitated physical assault more than girls, but there was no sex difference in imitating verbal aggression. Boys were also more likely to imitate a same sex model. There was a control group of children who did not observe an aggressive interaction with the doll, and aggressive behaviour was almost non-existent afterwards in children.

Answer 69

- Research support (9-12 year old boys) One strength of SLT is research supporting its socio-psychological explanation of aggression. Psychologists found that aggressive boys between the ages of 9-12 formed friendships with other aggressive boys. There friendships mutually reinforced each boys aggressive behaviour through modelling processes. For example, the boys observed each other successfully using proactive aggression to get what they wanted from peers, providing reinforcement. This means they experienced frequent exposure to models of physical aggression and to it's positive consequences. This was perpetuated from the fact that gaining approval from the group was rewarding, which acted as further reinforcement. These social learning processes made imitation of aggressive behaviour by the boys much more likely, as predicted by SLT. - Counterpoint (9-12 year old boys) In counterpoint, the study on the young boys DID NOT find similarity between friends for *reactive aggression*. Reactive aggression is referred to as 'hot-blooded aggression' - which is angry retaliation that occurs in the heat of the moment, not being pre-meditated. The researchers found that they boys were much less likely to influence each others *reactive* aggressive outbursts. They observed them, but generally did not imitate them. This was perhaps the consequences of reactive aggression being unpredictable - it may not be rewarding, in contrast to proactive aggression - so this is less reinforcing. This suggests SLT is limited as it is a relatively weak explanation of reactive aggression, only encompassing one type: proactive aggression. - Real world application Another strength of SLT explanation is that its principles can help to reduce aggression. Children readily imitate models when they observe rewards for behaviors, which is especially the case when they identify with them. This fact applies to modelling aggressive behaviour. One way to reduce aggression is to provide rewarded 'non-aggressive models'. The same learning processes that can lead to aggressive behaviour can produce non-aggression, therefore. For instance, encouraging children to form friendships with children who are rewarded for lack of aggression (and, furthermore presenting them with similar media characters) gives more opportunity to model these non-aggressive behaviors and be reinforced for this. Therefore, SLT offers practical steps to reduce the development of aggressive behaviour in children. - Biological influences One limitation of SLT is that it underestimates the influence of biological factors in explaining aggression. Bandura did, to a certain extent, recognize the role of biology as he accepted that there is an urge to be aggressive that is instinctive in nature. Despite this, he was equally clear that the form aggression takes is primarily learned and is the outcome of a child's 'nurture'. Against Bandura's assertion, it is well established that there are many powerful biological factors in aggression such as genetics, evolution, neural and hormonal mechanisms. SLT barely acknowledges these and certainly doesn't offer explanation to how they influence aggression, such as the role of mirror neurons in learning. To conclude, SLT is an incomplete explanation of aggression due to underplaying the role of biological mechanisms and factors behind it.

Answer 70

A psychological state in which an individual loses their personal identity and takes the identity of a social group. This usually has the result of decreased concern about the evaluation of others.

Answer 71

- When we are individual, we are easily identified by others and our behavior is constrained by social norms. - This is because we live in a society where most forms of aggression are discouraged

Answer 72

- We lose restraint and have the freedom to behave in ways we wouldn't otherwise. - We lose our senses of individual self identity and responsibility for our behavior, disregarding norms and even laws. - Responsibility is shared throughout the crowd, so we experience less personal guilt about directing harmful aggression to others.

Answer 73

Behavior is rational and normative

Answer 74

Behaviors are emotional, impulsive, irrational, disinhibited and anti-normative.

Answer 75

We lose self-awareness, stop monitoring and regulating own own behavior, ignore social norms and 'live for the moment', failing to make longer-term plans

Answer 76

- Darkness - Drugs and alcohol - Uniforms - Masks and disguises

Answer 77

- **Anonymity**

Answer 78

- We have less fear of retribution because we are a small and unidentifiable part of a faceless crowd. - Anonymity provides fewer opportunities for others to judge us negatively

Answer 79

- Prentice-Dunn and Rogers

Answer 80

- Reduced public self awareness - Reduced private self awareness

Answer 81

- **Private self awareness** is how we pay attention to our own feelings and behaviors.

Answer 82

- **Public self awareness** is how much we care about what others think of our behavior.

Answer 83

- Being in a crowd *reduces* private self-awareness. - This is because our attention becomes focused outwardly to the events around us, so we pay less attention to our feelings and beliefs. - As a result, we are less critical and less thoughtful, which promotes a de-individuated state.

Answer 84

- Being in a crowd reduces our public self-awareness. - We comprehend that we are one individual amongst many, so we are anonymous and our behavior is less likely to be judged by others. - From this, we no longer care of how other people see us, and feel less accountable for aggressive actions

Answer 85

- Dodd asked 229 undergraduate university students in 13 classes the question: *"If you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance you would not be detected or held responsible - what would you do?"* The students were aware their responses were anonymous. - 3 independent raters who did not know the hypothesis decided on which categories of anti-social behavior the responses belonged to. - Dodd found that **36%** of the responses involved some form of anti-social behavior. **26%** were actual criminal acts, with the most common being 'rob a bank'. - A few students opted for murder, rape and assassination of a political figure. Only 9% of the responses were pro-social behavior. - This study demonstrates a link between anonymity, de-individuation and aggression.

Answer 86

- Research support One strength of the de-individuation explanation is research support. Aggressive behavior online was observed in chatrooms and instant messages. A strong correlation was found between anonymity and 'flaming' (posting hostile messages). It was found the most aggressive messages came from those who chose to hide their true identity. This is a common behavior of online 'trolls', which have been implicated in high-profile cases of self-harm and even suicide. This supports the link between aggression and anonymity, a key element of de-individuation. - Research counterpoint: 'deviance in the dark'. There is evidence that de-individuation does not always lead to aggression. A study labelled 'deviance in the dark' involved groups of 8 strangers being placed in a completely darkened room for 1 hour. They were told they could do whatever they wanted to, and they could not identify each other and wouldn't meet following this encounter. They quickly stopped talking and started touching and kissing each other intimately. In a second study, the different condition was new participants were informed they would come face to face afterwards. In this case, the amount of touching/kissing was much lower. Therefore, de-individuation may not always lead to aggression. - Real world de-individuation Another strength of this explanation is that de-individuation can explain the behavior of 'baiting crowds'. Instances of suicidal 'jumpers' were investigated. 21 reports spoke of a crowd gathering to 'bait' a jumper (encouraging). These incidents tended to happen in darkness, large crowds and when the jumper was distant from the crowd. These are conditions predicted by de-individuation theory that leads to de-individuation in crowds, leading to this aggressive baiting. Therefore, there is some validity to the idea that a large group can become aggressive in a de-individuated 'faceless' crowd. - Role of norms A limitation is that de-individuated behavior is more normative than anti-normative. De-individuation theory argues that crowds behave in ways that are contrary to social norms, as disinhibited aggression, when we are less aware of our private identity. However, in the SIDE model (social identity model of de-individuation), it is argued that de-individuation actually leads to behavior that conforms to group norms. These may be anti-social norms but could equally well be pro-social norms. This occurs as anonymity shifts an individuals attention from their private identity to a social identity in the group. This suggests that people in a de-individuated state remain sensitive to norms rather than ignoring them.

Answer 87

Aggressive or violent behaviour occurring in the social context of a prison or other formal organized setting

Answer 88

- Dispositional (importation model) - Situational (deprivation model)

Answer 89

The importation model

Answer 90

The deprivation model

Answer 91

Irwin and Cressey

Answer 92

An explanation of behaviour that highlights the importance of the individuals personality (their disposition)

Answer 93

- The argument that prisons are not completely insulated from everyday life outside in the 'real world'. - In the importation model, inmates coming from outside bring (import) a subculture typical of *criminality*, including their beliefs, norms, attitudes and learning experiences. They also import other characteristics such as gender and ethnicity.

Answer 94

- The willingness to use violence to settle disputes with inmates reflects their lives before imprisonment. - Inmates import such behaviors and characteristics which influences their use of aggression to establish power, influence and access to resources (convict subculture). - So, aggression is the product of individual characteristics (disposition) of inmates, and not the prison environment.

Answer 95

Individual nature (inherited temperament) and also nurture (social environment characteristics were fostered in)

Answer 96

DeLisi's study on Californian juvenile offenders.

Answer 97

- DeLisi studied a group of juvenile offenders in Californian institutions who had negative backgrounds (childhood trauma, anger, substance abuse history and violent behaviors). - It was found that the juvenile offenders were importing these characteristics (and resulting dispositions) into prisons. Researchers compared these to a control group of inmates who did not have these negative background features. The inmates with the 'negative' backgrounds were more likely to engage in suicidal activity, sexual misconduct and acts of physical aggression. - This supports importation theory.

Answer 98

- Research support One strength of the dispositional explanations is research support for importation model. There was a study of 561 male inmates with similar criminal histories and dispositions to aggression. 1/2 of these inmates were placed in low security Californian prisons whilst the other 1/2 were randomly placed in high security prisons. Within 2 years, there was no significant difference between these two prisons in number of prisoners involved in aggressive misconduct (33% and 36%) The researchers concluded that features of the prison environment, which is situational, is less important as a predictor of aggressive behaviour as opposed to characteristics of inmates. This is strong evidence for importation due to the random allocation of inmates, supporting the dispositional explanation. - Ignores key factors One limitation of the importation model as a dispositional explanation is that it ignores key factors. It has been claimed that the importation model ignores other factors that can influence prisoners behaviors - for example: how the prison is run. It has instead been proposed that there is a **Administrative control model** (ACM) that states poorly managed prisons are more likely to have inmate violence. Poor management involves weak leadership, a thriving culture of unofficial rules, distant staff and few educational opportunities. Therefore, importation is an inadequate explanation because institutional factors can be found to be more important than inmate characteristics.

Answer 99

An explanation of behaviour that identifies the causes as existing within the environment, including the role of others.

Answer 100

- The idea that institutional aggression is caused by the prison environment itself. - Harsh prison conditions are stressful for inmates, who cope by resorting to aggressive or violent behavior. - These harsh conditions include psychological factors (deprived of freedom and sexual intimacy) and physical factors (deprivation of goods and services)

Answer 101

- Harsh psychological and physical factors, especially with the physical factor of material goods is closely linked to aggression. Material good deprivation creates competition amongst inmates, creating aggression. - The nature of the prison regime, such as being unpredictable and frequently using lock-ups creates aggression. The nature of this to control behavior creates frustration, reduces stimulation from barring interesting activities and reduces further access to goods. This induces violence, an adaptive solution to the problem of deprivation.

Answer 102

Steiner looking at factors predicting aggression in 512 US prisons

Answer 103

- Steiner looked at factors predicting aggression in 512 US prisons. - Inmate-on-inmate violence was more common in prisons where there was a higher proportion of staff who were women, extreme overcrowding and having more inmates in protective custody. - These are prison-level factors, and are independent of individual characteristics of prisoners. They reliably predicted aggressive behavior in line with the deprivation model.

Answer 104

- Research support. One strength of situational explanations for institutional aggression is support for the deprivation model. 35 inmate homicides in Texan prisons between 2000 and 2008 were analyzed. It was found most of the perpetrators motivations for their violent behaviors were linked to deprivations identified in Clemmer's model. Many homicides were the results of arguments between cell-sharing inmates where 'boundaries' were judged to have been crossed. Particular examples were arguments over drugs, sexual activity and personal possessions. There factors are identified in the deprivation model, supporting it's validity - further upholding situational explanations. - Contradictory evidence One limitation is research contradicting the deprivation model. The deprivation model predicts that 'deprivation' or a lack of heterosexual contact would lead to high levels of aggressive behavior in prisons. However, a study on 256 male and female inmates from 2 Mississippi prisons suggested otherwise. Mississippi is a state that allows *conjugal visits*, visits from partners specifically for intercourse. In this study, there was no link between involvement in conjugal visits and reduced aggressive behavior. This suggests that situational factors, related to the deprivation model such as these do not substantially affect prison violence.

Answer 105

- Studies on *excessive TV viewing* - Studies on *violent film content* - Studies stating *TV/Film effects not strong* - Computer game lab experiments and correlational studies

Answer 106

Communication channels (TV, films, books etc) through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available.

Answer 107

Robertson et al.

Answer 108

- Robertson measured TV viewing hours of over 1000 New Zealanders at regular intervals up to the age of 26. - Researchers found that time spent watching TV in childhood and adolescence was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour in early adulthood (defined as *convictions for aggressive and violent crimes*) - This was explained as excessive time spent watching TV is associated with reduced social interaction and poorer educational attainments. This means that the link between excessive viewing and aggression may be indirect (maybe due to reduced social interaction) - This explains the notion of how aggressive behaviour is linked to TV regardless of whether the content is violent or not.

Answer 109

Watching violent film content

Answer 110

- Bandura conducted a follow-up study of the original bobo doll, looking at the effects of aggression when viewed on a screen. - The earlier study was replicated, except children watched a film of the bobo doll being beaten by an adult model. - The outcome was similar, and children imitated the aggressive behaviour of the model (and a cartoon version). So, this means SLT processes identified by Bandura operate through media as well as face-to-face.

Answer 111

Paik and Comstock

Answer 112

- Paik and Comstock conducted a meta-analysis of around 2000 studies. - The outcome was that the meta-analysis DID find a significant *positive correlation* between TV/film viewing violence and anti-social behaviour. - DESPITE THIS, it was estimated that TV and film aggression only accounted for between 1-10% of the variance in children's aggressive behaviour. - This implies a relatively minor role for TV and film compared with other sources of aggression.

Answer 113

- The player takes a more active role compared to being a relatively passive viewer - Game-playing is more directly rewarding for the player (**operant conditioning**)

Answer 114

- Lab experiments have the advantage of demonstrating cause-and-effect. - There are disadvantages ethically of deliberately exposing participants to violence to encourage aggressive behaviour. - An alternate measure is the '**Taylor competitive reaction time task**. Participants deliver blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to 'punish' a (non-existent) opponent.

Answer 115

Bartholow and Anderson

Answer 116

- Lab experiments - Correlational studies

Answer 117

- Bartholow and Anderson used the *Taylor competitive reaction time task* standard lab measure. - The Taylor competitive reaction time task is where participants can deliver blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to 'punish' a (non-existent) opponent. - It was found that students who played a violent computer game for 10 minutes (Mortal Kombat) selected significantly higher volumes of white noise than students who played a non-violent golfing game (PGA Tour).

Answer 118

- Correlational studies have common findings that several measures of aggression are positively correlated with time spent playing violent computer games (e.g: in juvenile offenders, DeLisi) - DeLisi argues that correlational studies well-establish a link between this so aggression could be considered a public health issue and CG violence being a significant risk factor.

Answer 119

- Defining aggression One limitation of research into media and aggression is that aggression is defined in various ways. For example: the dependent variable in media studies of aggression ranges from violent behaviour, volume of white noise blasted and criminal convictions. Violence and aggression is accepted to not be the exact same behaviour - all violence is aggression, but not all aggression is violence - and, not all aggression or even violence is necessarily criminal. The effects found in studies depend very much on how aggression is defined. Therefore, variations in aggressions definition means that studies findings are hard to compare. - Meta-analysis counterpoint In counterpoint, meta-analyses can help to overcome this problem. For instance, Anderson conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis which included 136 studies defining aggression in different ways. The researchers found that exposure to violent computer games was associated with increases in all outcome measures of aggression for both women and men. Furthermore, high quality studies in analysis showed even greater significant effects. Therefore, meta-analyses that include various definitions of aggression are a valid method for uncovering media effects on aggression. - Unsupported conclusions Another limitation is that aggression, in media, is plagued by unsupported conclusions. There are several reasons why there should be a sense of balance. Firstly, many research samples are methodologically weak (confounding variables and poor sampling methods). Even meta-analyses are not always perfect on the basis of GIGO (*garbage-in garbage-out*) - if poor quality studies are included, the analysis will also be poor quality. Secondly, many studies are correlational - so cause-and-effect conclusions are unjustified. Thirdly, experimental studies do lack external validity, as they are unrealistic measures of aggression) so findings are hard to generalize to the real world. As a result, some researchers may be guilty of drawing premature conclusions based on findings that lack validity. - Explaining media research findings. One strength of media research on aggression is that findings can be explained using social learning theory. Anderson et al presented SLT as a 'convincing theoretical framework'. It is noted and widely accepted that exposure to violence at home, for example, is harmful to children. In logic, it makes sense that TV and computer/videogame games are other sources of social learning. Children are more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors when they see them being rewarded in *vicarious* reinforcement, and even so when children identify with on screen characters. This is a key feature of science - and a unifying explanation to account for findings, enhancing the validity of this research.

Answer 120

- Desensitization - Disinhibition - Cognitive priming

Answer 121

- Reduced sensitivity to a stimulus - This can be physiological (lowered heart rate) or psychological (less emotional response) - this reduced response makes behavior such as aggression more likely.

Answer 122

- We experience physiological arousal associated with the **sympathetic nervous system**, such as increased heart rate, high blood pressure and sweating

Answer 123

- They become used to it's effects, so a stimulus that is usually aversive has a lesser impact. - Anxiety and arousal become *lower* on repeated viewing or playing.

Answer 124

- Repeated exposure to violent media promotes a belief that using aggression as a method of resolving conflict is socially acceptable. - Negative attitudes towards violence weaken, less empathy is felt for victims and injuries are minimized or dismissed.

Answer 125

Weisz and Earls

Answer 126

- A laboratory study was conducted where participants were shown the feature film *straw dogs*, containing a prolonged and graphic scene of rape. - Participants then watched a re-enactment of a rape trial. - Compared with those who watched a non sexually violent film, *male* viewers of Straw dogs showed greater acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression. They also expressed less sympathy towards the rape victim in the trial, and were less likely to find the defendant guilty. - There were no such effects on film type on female participants

Answer 127

Research support One strength of the desensitisation explanation is research support. Participants were presented with violent and non-violent films while measuring physiological arousal using *skin conductance*. Participants who were habitual viewers of violent media showed lower levels of arousal as they watched the violent film clips. In addition, they also gave louder bursts of white noise (the Taylor competitive reaction time task measure of aggression) to a confederate without being provoked (proactive aggression). This lower arousal to violent media reflects desensitisation to the effects of violence, also linked to greater willingness to use aggression. - Alternative explanation COUNTERPOINT One limitation is that desensitisation cannot explain some aggression. The study on skin-conductance failed to link media viewing, lower arousal and **reactive** aggression. A more valid explanation for this may be *catharsis*. This is a psychodynamic theoretical explanation that suggests viewing violent media can be a safety valve - allowing people to release aggressive impulses without violence. Therefore, not all aggression is the result of desensitisation and alternate explanations may be more valid.

Answer 128

A lack of restraint (no longer being inhibited) potentially due to environmental triggers or overexposure to a stimulus. This results in socially unacceptable behaviors becoming perceived as more acceptable and more likely used.

Answer 129

- Most generally hold the view that violence and aggression are anti-social and harmful. As a result, there are strong social and psychological inhibitions against using aggression to resolve conflicts. - These are learned processes, explained by social learning theory.

Answer 130

- Usual restraints on behaviour are loosened after exposure to violent media. - Aggressive behaviour is often made to appear normative and socially sanctioned in such media, especially when portrayals minimize the effects of violence on victims and justify it (IM LOOKING AT YOU MARVEL). - New social norms are created in the viewer.

Answer 131

- One strength of disinhibition is research support. A study found participants who were shown a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more (fake) electric shocks of a longer duration to a confederate. Media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour if it is presented as justified and socially acceptable - as in the case of vengeance. This demonstrates the link between removal of social constraints and subsequent aggressive behaviour. - Cartoon violence Another strength of disinhibition is that it can explain how cartoon aggression has effects. Children do not learn specific aggressive behaviours from cartoon models (it is not possible to punch someone so their head spins 360). Instead, they learn that aggression in general is acceptable and socially normative. This is especially true if the cartoon model is not punished. This disinhibits aggressive behavior. Therefore, disinhibition explains how cartoon aggression can lead to aggression in those who observe it.

Answer 132

Where the way a person thinks (cognitive) is triggered by cues or 'scripts' which make us ready (primed) to respond in specific ways.

Answer 133

Watching violent films providing a 'script' about how to react in certain situations, so a person is more ready to respond in the same way.

Answer 134

- Repeated viewing of aggressive media can provide a **'script'** about how violent situations may play out. - This script is stored in memory, so we become ready or **'primed'** to become aggressive - This process is automatic, directing our behaviour without us being aware of it. - The script produced is then triggered when we encounter cues in a situation that we perceive as aggressive.

Answer 135

Fischer and Greitemeyer

Answer 136

- Fischer and Greitemeyer investigated an underrepresented form of media violence - song lyrics. - Men listened to songs featuring aggressively derogatory lyrics about women. - Compared to when they listened to neutral lyrics, participants subsequently recalled more negative qualities about women and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate. - This procedure was replicated with women as participants using 'men-hating' song lyrics, producing similar results.

Answer 137

- Real-world application One strength of cognitive priming is its real-world applications. Whether real-world situations become violent is dependent on interpretation of environmental cues. This in turn depends on cognitive scripts they have stored in memory. Psychologists argue that someone who habitually watches violent media accesses stored aggressive scripts more readily. As a result, they are more likely to interpret cues as aggressive and resort to a violent solution without considering alternate actions. This suggests that, in opposition, interventions could potentially reduce aggressive behaviour by challenging hostile cognitive biases. - Confounding variables One limitation of cognitive priming is confounding variables in research. Research into the effects of video games has found that playing violent games primes violent behaviour more than non-violent games do. The problem is that violent games tend to be much more complex in gameplay compared to non-violent games, and this complexity acts as a confounding variable. In this way, it is the confounding complexity that creates frustration and a priming effect, not the violence. It had been found that when complexity was controlled, the priming effects of videogames disappeared. Therefore, the supportive findings into priming may at least be partly attributed to confounding variables.