Gender

Question 1

Define sex

Answer 1

The biological differences between males and females including their chromosomes, hormones and anatomy.
(Biological status as either male or female)

Question 2

Define gender

Answer 2

The psychological, social and cultural differences between men and women including attributes, behaviors and social roles.
(Psychosocial status as either masculine or feminine)

Question 3

What does gender include?

Answer 3

All the attitudes, roles and behaviours we associate with a gender

Question 4

What is gender influenced by?

Answer 4

Social norms and cultural expectations

Question 5

What is sex determined by?

Answer 5

Chromosomes
XX for females
XY for males

Question 6

Is gender considered environmentally determined?

Answer 6

• Partially
  Gender is ‘assigned’ as it is a social construct.
  Gender is partially determined by the environment so it isn’t fixed - it is fluid and open to change.
  A person can be more ‘masculine’ or more ‘feminine’ dependent on social context

Question 7

What is gender dysphoria?

Answer 7

• Where biologically determined sex does not reflect how one feels inside and the gender that they identify with.

For most, biological sex and gender identity correspond, biological males will feel more masculine and vice versa for women and perceive themselves as this.
If someone has gender dysphoria, they may choose to have gender reassignment surgery to bring sexual identity in line with their gender identity

Question 8

Define sex role stereotypes

Answer 8

A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about expectations of what is appropriate for men and women in a given society.

Question 9

Explain sex role stereotypes (describe in more detail)

Answer 9

Despite there mostly being no biological reasons why actions such as domestic tasks should exclusively apply to one gender, according to social constructs it is perceived that women traditionally prepare food whereas men take practical tasks.

Sex stereotypes are a set of shared expectations in a culture of what is acceptable or usual behaviour for men or women.

Question 10

How are sex role stereotypes learned or transmitted through society (sociology blehh)

Answer 10

Sex role stereotypes are transmitted through society and generations, reinforced by parents, peers, the media and institutions such as schools.
This is supported by social learning theory, viewing that various agents of socialisation (parents or media) sustain stereotypical expectations of men and women in society.

Question 11

Define androgyny in psychology

Answer 11

Where an individual will display a BALANCE of masculine and feminine characteristics in one’s personality, including traits, attributes and behaviours

Question 12

Give an example of an androgynous person

Answer 12

For example: a man who is aggressive at work, but a caring and sensitive parent

Question 13

What psychologist investigated androgyny?

Answer 13

Sandra Bem

Question 14

What did Bem believe about androgynous individuals?

Answer 14

She suggested that high androgyny is associated with higher psychological wellbeing.
This is due to individuals who are roughly equal in feminine and masculine traits are better equipped to adapt to a range of situations. This is in contrast to non-androgynous individuals who would have difficulty with this due to having a narrower range of traits to draw from.

Question 15

Does over-representation of opposite gender characteristics equate to androgyny?

Answer 15

NO.

Over-representation of opposite gender characteristics does not mean they are androgynous.
It is exhibiting a necessary BALANCE of masculine and feminine traits

Question 16

What is used to measure androgyny?

Answer 16

• Bem sex role inventory (BSRI)

Question 17

Explain how the Bem Sex Role Inventory works

Answer 17

Bem (1974) created a scale that presents 20 characteristics that are commonly identified as masculine (‘competitive’ or ‘aggressive’) and 20 characteristics typically judged as feminine (‘tender’ and ‘gentle’).
In addition, there were 20 further ‘neutral’ traits included.

Respondents were required to rate themselves on a 7-point rating scale.
1: ‘never true of me’ to 7: ‘always true of me’

Scores were then classified on the basis of 2 dimensions: masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated.
Therefore the scores were classified as…

• High masculine-low feminine —> masculine
• Low masculine-high feminine —> feminine
• High masculine-high feminine —> androgynous
• Low masculine-low feminine—> undifferentiated

Question 18

Evaluate androgyny (including BSRI)

Answer 18

• Quantitative approach leading to qualitative
  A strength of Bem’s research into androgyny is that it is measured quantitatively.
  The Bem sex role inventory is numerically determined so it is useful for research purposes, for example, to quantify a dependent variable. Despite this, it is argued that there is more to gender then set behaviors deemed typical of one, so qualitative methods offer better analysis.
  To compromise, scales in androgyny research have been merged - the personal attribute questionnaire (PAQ) adds more dimensions to Bem’s set masculinity-femininity dimensions - looking at instrumentality and expressivity.
  This suggests that merging both quantitative and qualitative approaches is useful in terms of studying behavior and aspects of androgyny.
• Valid and reliable.
  A strength of the BSRI is, at the time of development, it appeared to be a valid and reliable method of measuring androgyny.
  The scale was developed by asking 50 men and 50 women judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how much they represented ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness’.
  The traits that scored the highest in each category became the 20 masculine and 20 feminine traits on the BSRI.
  The BSRI was then piloted with over 1000 students and the results broadly corresponded with the participants own description of their gender identity - demonstrating validity.
  Lastly, a follow up study with smaller samples with the SAME students produced similar scores when tested a month later - having TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY.
  This gives reason to believe the BSRI to be a valid and reliable measure.
• Limited temporal and cross-cultural validity.
  A limitation of the BSRI in measuring androgyny is potential for it to be outdated and ungeneralizable.
  The BSRI was developed over 40 years ago, so behaviors regarded ‘typical’ or ‘acceptable’ for a given gender may have shifted significantly since then.
  The BSRI was devised using only US participants - this means notions of ‘male’ or ‘female’ behavior may be interpreted differently between cultures.
  This suggests the BSRI is lacking in temporal validity and generalizability - making it a less suitable or inappropriate measure of gender identity today.
• Androgyny and wellbeing.
  A limitation of the BSRI with androgyny is that psychologists may criticize Bem’s claim that androgyny equates to better psychological wellbeing.
  Bem would argue that androgyny correlates with improved mental health due to androgynous individuals having a wider range of traits to draw from to adapt to situations that demand a specific trait. This notion has been challenged in the sense that some researchers argue that people who develop a greater proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted and therefore, more mentally well. This comes from the concept of individualist cultures apparent higher value of masculine traits. This means that Bem’s ideas, as a singular person, may be criticized or opposed by different perspectives as there is no basis to show this is true.

Question 19

What are chromosomes made of?

Answer 19

DNA

Question 20

What pair of chromosomes determine biological sex?

Answer 20

23rd pair of chromosomes

Question 21

What chromosomes are female and what chromosomes are male?

Answer 21

• Female: XX
• Male: XY

Question 22

What are all chromosomes produced by ovum and which chromosomes are produced by sperm

Answer 22

• Egg cell: Only X chromosomes
• Sperm: either X or Y (sperm determines sex)

Question 23

How many chromosomes are in a human body (and how many pairs)?

Answer 23

• 46 Chromosomes
• 23 Pairs

Question 24

What gene does Y chromosomes carry and what does it do?

Answer 24

• Carries the ‘sex determining region Y’ (SRY)
• Causes testes to develop in an XY embryo - producing androgens (male sex hormones)

Question 25

What is the role of hormones in gender development?

Answer 25

Although chromosomes initially determine a persons sex, hormones influence gender development.

Prenatally, hormones act upon brain development, influencing the development of reproductive organs.
During puberty, increased hormonal activity triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Question 26

What are the three hormones in gender (according to psych not bio)

Answer 26

• Testosterone
• Oestrogen
• Oxytocin

Question 27

What does testosterone do?

Answer 27

Testosterone is a male hormone (despite being present in small quantities in females)
It controls the development of male sex organs during foetal development.

Question 28

How is testosterone evolutionarily important?

Answer 28

High levels of testosterone are linked to adaptive aggressive behaviour.
- Aggression towards rivals to compete for fertile mate
- Role as hunters, being aggressive increases success.

Question 29

What does oestrogen do?

Answer 29

Oestrogen is a female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation.

Question 30

What is the side effects of oestrogen?

Answer 30

Oestrogen can cause some women to experience heightened emotions and irritability in pre menstrual disorder (PMD) or pre menstrual tension (PMT).
In extreme cases this has successfully been used as a defence in court for female shoplifters or even murderers.

Question 31

What would happen if a genetic female produced high levels of testosterone in the womb?

Answer 31

They may develop male sex organs in the womb

Question 32

What is oxytocin also referred to as?

Answer 32

The love hormone

Question 33

List what oxytocin causes

Answer 33

• Contraction in labour
• Lactation for breastfeeding
• Reduces cortisol
• Produced post labour to induce love for baby
• Facilitates bonding

Question 34

Do men produce oxytocin and what is a misconception surrounding this?

Answer 34

• Yes, but in smaller quantities than women
• Misconception: since men produce less, they are less interested in intimacy in a relationship.
  Despite this, they produce a roughly equal amount during amorous activity.

Question 35

Evaluate the role of chromosomes and hormones in gender development

Answer 35

• Evidence for testosterone interaction.
  One strength of the role of chromosomes and hormones in gender development is that there is evidence to support the role of hormones in gender development even in mature males.
  Christina Wang conducted a study linking testosterone and male sexual behavior.
  Wang studied men with hypogonadism, a condition caused by testes failing to produce normal level of testosterone. 227 hypogonadal men were given testosterone therapy for 180 days - and monitored changes in body shape, muscle strength, sexual function, libido and mood. Significant increases in muscle strength were observed within the sample, as well as sexual arousal.
  This study provides evidence that testosterone exerts a powerful and direct influence on male sexual arousal, as well as physical development even in the adult body.
• Social factors ignored.
  A limitation of biologically accounting for gender development with hormones and chromosomes is that it ignores social factors in gender related behavior.
  Hofstede claims that gender roles around the world are more consequences of social norms as opposed to biology. Psychologists equate notions of masculinity and femininity with whether who cultures are individualistic or collectivist. Countries that place individual competition and independence above community, according to Hofstede are more masculine in outlook, and these will subsequently be more valued.
  This challenges reductionist biological explanations of gender behavior, suggesting that social factors may be equally as important in shaping gendered behavior.
• Reductionist
  A limitation of using the biological role of hormones and chromosomes to explain gender development is that it is reductionist.
  Accounts reducing gender to hormones and chromosomes can be accused of underplaying or ignoring alternative explanations.
  The cognitive approach, as an alternative explanation, draws attention to the influence of thought processes such as schema.
  Even though thought processes may be altered in brain maturation, they are not adequately explained by the biological approach.
  In addition to this, the psychodynamic approach acknowledges biological maturation yet also includes childhood experience such as family interaction in gender development.
  This suggests that gender is more complex than biological influence alone.
• Pathologizing gender using hormones.
  A further limitations of just emphasizing importance of hormones is that it may be damaging to gender minorities.
  There are various conditions caused by fluctuating sex hormones, seen in the diagnosis of PMD. Psychologists may argue that this stereotypes women’s experiences and emotion, pushing the narrative that PMD is a social construction, not a biological fact that can create damaging gender based stereotypes. In contrast, others may argue that studying hormones attributed to gender can help diagnosis and treatment for medical symptoms. This outlines how corresponding gender to hormones can have complex effects that are socially sensitive.

Question 36

What is meant by atypical sex chromosome patterns?

Answer 36

Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation and which tends to be associated with distinct patterns of physical and psychological symptoms.

Question 37

What gender does Klinefelters syndrome apply to?

Answer 37

Biological males

Question 38

What are the two examples of atypical sex chromosome patterns?

Answer 38

• Klinefelters syndrome
• Turner’s syndrome

Question 39

What is the chromosome pattern in Klinefelters syndrome?

Answer 39

XXY

Question 40

Explain Klinefelters syndrome

Answer 40

Klinefelters syndrome is in biological males, affecting around 1/600.
The biological males have the anatomical appearance of a male - but have an additional X chromosome (XXY).
10% of cases are identified by prenatal diagnosis, however 2/3rds are not aware of it.
Most diagnosis occurs as a result of an unrelated medical examination.

Question 41

List the physical characteristics of Klinefelters syndrome

Answer 41

• Reduced body hair compared to an XY male
• Soft contours of the body
• Breast development at puberty
• Gangly and long limbs
• Underdeveloped genitals
• General clumsiness and issues w/ co-ordination
• Prone to common female health problems like breast cancer

Question 42

List the psychological characteristics of Klinefelters syndrome

Answer 42

• Linked to poorly developed language and reading ability
• Passive and shy
• Lack of interest in sexual activity
• Poor response to stressful situations
• Problems with executive functions (memory and problem solving)

Question 43

What gender does Turner’s syndrome affect?

Answer 43

Biological females

Question 44

What is the chromosome pattern in Turner’s syndrome?

Answer 44

XO

Question 45

Explain Turner’s syndrome

Answer 45

Atypical sex chromosome pattern that affects biological females. It affects 1/5000.
The genotype is XO due to the absence of one of the two allotted X chromosomes.
Those with Turner’s syndrome have 45 chromosomes rather than the usual 46.

Question 46

Explain Turner’s syndrome

Answer 46

Atypical sex chromosome pattern that affects biological females. It affects 1/5000.

Question 47

List the physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome

Answer 47

• Absence of period (amenorrhoea)
• Undeveloped ovaries (infertility)
• Breasts do not develop at puberty
• Have a broad ‘shield’ chest
• Webbed neck
• Low set ears
• High waist to hip ratio (hips are not much bigger than waist)
• Physical immaturity (retains appearance of prepubescent girl)

Question 48

List the psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome

Answer 48

• Higher than average reading ability.
• Lower than average performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks.
• Social immaturity
• Trouble relating to peers and difficulty ‘fitting in’.

Question 49

How is atypical sex chromosome patterns treated?

Answer 49

Hormone replacement therapy

Question 50

Evaluate atypical sex chromosome patterns

Answer 50

• Contribution to the nature nurture debate.
  A strength of research into atypical sex chromosome individuals is its contribution to the nature nurture debate.
  In comparing those with typical sex chromosome patterns to those without, it allows observation of psychological and behavioral differences attributed to chromosomes.
  This is seen in Turners syndrome in which the individuals tend to have a higher verbal ability than ‘typical’ females. From this logic, it can be inferred behavioral differences have a biological basis as a direct result of abnormal chromosome development.
  This supports the perspective that innate ‘nature’ influences have a more powerful effect on gendered psychology and behavior.
• Intervening nurture influence.
  In counterpoint of using cases of atypical chromosome patterned individuals to justify the ‘nature’ perspective is the issues involved in concluding this.
  The differences in behavior seen in those with atypical sex chromosomes is not casual in relationship. Environmental and social factors are arguably equally as responsible for any observed differences. For instance, the psychological characteristic of social immaturity in Turner’s syndrome. This psychological symptom may not be innate, it may be as a result of being treated immaturely due to their prepubescent appearance. Parents, teachers and other individuals may inadvertently encourage immaturity - having an impact on their further performance.
  This suggests that, in comparing behaviors of those with chromosomal conditions, it may be incorrect to reduce the psychological differences to biological influence only.
• Real world application.
  A strength of research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is the practical application in managing the syndromes.
  Expanding research on atypical sex chromosome patterns is that is can lead to earlier and more accurate diagnosis of Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome - creating positive outcomes.
  This was seen in an Australian study of people with Klinefelter’s. In this study, it was outlined that those who had been identified and treated earlier experienced significant benefits in managing their syndrome compared to those diagnosed later. This suggests that increasing research and awareness into atypical chromosome patterns may be beneficial for the individuals diagnosed.
• Sampling issue.
  One limitation of the description of Klinefelter’s (or Turners) syndrome is the potential sampling issue. To identify characteristics of XXY and XO individuals, it is necessary to identify a large number of individuals with the disorder to establish a database. In this way, we can assess the spectrum of characteristics ranging from mild to severe.
  In general, only individuals presenting with severe symptoms are likely to be identified and therefore the picture of typical symptoms may be distorted.
  It was reported that PROSPECTIVE studies following XXY from birth produced more accurate pictures of characteristics - many with this disorder do not experience significant cognitive or psychological issues - having academic success and living normal lives. This suggests that the typical picture of chromosomal disorders may be exaggerated.

Question 51

What was Kohlberg’s main argument for gender development?

Answer 51

His main argument was that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated due to biological maturation (as opposed to experience)

Question 52

What are the three stages of gender development in Kohlberg’s theory?

Answer 52

• Gender identity
• Gender stability
• Gender constancy

Question 53

What are the three stages of gender development in Kohlberg’s theory?

Answer 53

• Gender identity
• Gender stability
• Gender constancy

Question 54

At what ages do the different stages of gender development in Kohlberg’s theory happen?

Answer 54

• Gender identity: around 2-3
• Gender stability: around 4
• Gender constancy: around 5-6

Question 55

Name the 2 cognitive explanations for gender development

Answer 55

• Kohlberg’s theory
• Gender schema theory

Question 56

Outline Kohlberg’s stage 1: Gender identity

Answer 56

Gender identity
At 2 years, a child is able to correctly identify themselves as a boy or a girl, and processes the ability to label others as such.
Despite this, their understanding of gender doesn’t stretch beyond simple labelling.
They don’t see gender as fixed at this stage.

Question 57

Outline Kohlberg’s stage 2: gender stability

Answer 57

At 4 children acquire gender stability.
The child understands their gender is fixed (they will remain the same gender overtime and they will be a man/woman as they age).
They cannot apply this logic to others and will be confused by external changes in appearance, such as a man with long hair who’d be described as a woman by them.
They also believe others gender can change according to the activity they are engaging in (such as a builder who is a woman or a nurse who is a man).

Question 58

Outline Kohlberg’s stage 3: Gender constancy

Answer 58

Occurring at around 6, children realise that gender remains the same over time and between situations.
They begin to identify with people of their own gender and then will adopt behaviours stereotypically appropriate for their gender.

They are able to apply this understanding to others so won’t be confused by external appearance, a man in a dress will still be recognised as a man.

Question 59

How are role models involved in gender constancy (Kohlberg’s theory)

Answer 59

Children at the age of gender constancy will seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify with and imitate (brings in SLT values).
At stage 3, they actively search for evidence to confirm this concept.
From this, they develop a tendency towards gender stereotyping at this age.

Question 60

How does social learning theory differ from imitation seen in gender constancy?

Answer 60

Kohlberg’s believed that once gender constancy was reached , the child will seek out a same gender role model to imitate, however, in SLT, processes like these would occur at any age.

Question 61

Evaluate Kohlberg’s gender development stage theory (cognitive explanation)

Answer 61

• Research support for gender constancy
  One strength of Kohlberg’s theory is evidence suggesting that gender stereotyping will emerge around the age of 6, as predicted by the gender constancy stage.
  A study included telling children a story about George, a boy who liked to play with dolls - children were then asked to comment on the story. 4 year olds said it was fine to play with dolls whereas 6 year olds thought it was wrong for George to play with dolls.
  The 6 year olds had internalized the understanding of what boys and girls do, in turn developing rules of what they ought to do - GENDER STEREOTYPING.
  This suggests, children who have reached constancy have formed rigid stereotypes regarding gender appropriate behavior, corresponding to gender constancy stage.
• OPPOSING COUNTERPOINT
  A counterpoint to research evidence supporting gender constancy is research that challenges this stage. Bussey and Bandura found children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender appropriate toys and had negative feelings about doing the opposite.
  This contradicts Kohlberg’s theory that gender-appropriate behavior develops at 6, instead supporting gender schema theory that suggests children absorb gender-appropriate information as soon as they identify with being a boy or girl.
• Methodological limitations
  A limitation of Kohlberg’s theory is that supporting evidence relies on unsatisfactory methods to assess gender development.
  There is criticism into methodology attempting to link gender to cognitive development - this is due to demand characteristics and other factors that influence validity.
  Young children may answer in a way they believe the adult researcher wants to hear, making the results unrealistic. In addition, they may not even have the capability to communicate their ideas, leading to more interpretation from the researchers perspective.
  As a result, this creates issues with validity and therefore may misrepresent children’s actual process of gender development.
• Does not account for separate factors
  A limitation of Kohlberg’s gender development theory is that it disregards other factors that contribute to how gender is developed.
  A first example is that it ignores differences between male and female children - Slaby and Frey found that boys were more likely to have emphasis on gender differences as opposed to girls. this means that Kohlberg’s theory may be guilty of beta bias, underemphasizing how different sexes process gender. In addition, Kohlberg’s theory does not overly extend into why gender development follows these stages - showing little cause and effect insight.
  This means that Kohlberg’s stages may be less comprehensive as an explanation for gender development due to missing key aspects.

Question 62

Define gender schema

Answer 62

• An organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience

Question 63

What does gender schema do?

Answer 63

Guide a persons understanding of their own gender and stereotypical gender appropriate behavior in general.

Question 64

Who created gender schema theory?

Answer 64

Martin and Halverson

Question 65

What are the similarities between Kohlberg’s theory and gender schema theory?

Answer 65

• Both Kohlberg and gender schema theory share the view that children develop understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning rather than passively observing and imitating role models (seen in social learning theory)

Question 66

What are schema in general AND how does it relate to gender schema ?

Answer 66

Mental constructs that develop via experiences (however some are present at birth in basic form), our cognitive systems use these to organise knowledge relevant to a topic

Therefore, gender schema is a generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and stereotypical behaviour

Question 67

According to Martin and Halverson, what happen after a child has established gender identity at 2-3.

Answer 67

They will begin to search for information that encourages the development of gender schema.

Question 68

How is gender schema theory different from Kohlberg’s theory?

Answer 68

• Kohlberg believed that the process of actively searching for information that reinforces gender development occurs after passing through the 3 stages to gender constancy.
• In gender schema theory this can occur after gender identity at 2-3.

Question 69

How does gender schema determine behaviour?

Answer 69

Gender schema can expand to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits.

In young children, schema is formed around stereotypes (boys playing with trucks and girls playing with dolls) - this provides a framework that directs experience and understanding p.

Question 70

What happens at age 6 in gender schema theory?

Answer 70

Children are likely to misremember and disregard information that does not fit with their existing schema.
This is because they have a rather fixed and stereotypically based idea of what is appropriate for their gender