Gender

Question 1

Define sex

Answer 1

The biological differences between males and females including their chromosomes, hormones and anatomy.
(Biological status as either male or female)

Question 2

Define gender

Answer 2

The psychological, social and cultural differences between men and women including attributes, behaviors and social roles.
(Psychosocial status as either masculine or feminine)

Question 3

What does gender include?

Answer 3

All the attitudes, roles and behaviours we associate with a gender

Question 4

What is gender influenced by?

Answer 4

Social norms and cultural expectations

Question 5

What is sex determined by?

Answer 5

Chromosomes
XX for females
XY for males

Question 6

Is gender considered environmentally determined?

Answer 6

• Partially
  Gender is ‘assigned’ as it is a social construct.
  Gender is partially determined by the environment so it isn’t fixed - it is fluid and open to change.
  A person can be more ‘masculine’ or more ‘feminine’ dependent on social context

Question 7

What is gender dysphoria?

Answer 7

• Where biologically determined sex does not reflect how one feels inside and the gender that they identify with.

For most, biological sex and gender identity correspond, biological males will feel more masculine and vice versa for women and perceive themselves as this.
If someone has gender dysphoria, they may choose to have gender reassignment surgery to bring sexual identity in line with their gender identity

Question 8

Define sex role stereotypes

Answer 8

A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about expectations of what is appropriate for men and women in a given society.

Question 9

Explain sex role stereotypes (describe in more detail)

Answer 9

Despite there mostly being no biological reasons why actions such as domestic tasks should exclusively apply to one gender, according to social constructs it is perceived that women traditionally prepare food whereas men take practical tasks.

Sex stereotypes are a set of shared expectations in a culture of what is acceptable or usual behaviour for men or women.

Question 10

How are sex role stereotypes learned or transmitted through society (sociology blehh)

Answer 10

Sex role stereotypes are transmitted through society and generations, reinforced by parents, peers, the media and institutions such as schools.
This is supported by social learning theory, viewing that various agents of socialisation (parents or media) sustain stereotypical expectations of men and women in society.

Question 11

Define androgyny in psychology

Answer 11

Where an individual will display a BALANCE of masculine and feminine characteristics in one’s personality, including traits, attributes and behaviours

Question 12

Give an example of an androgynous person

Answer 12

For example: a man who is aggressive at work, but a caring and sensitive parent

Question 13

What psychologist investigated androgyny?

Answer 13

Sandra Bem

Question 14

What did Bem believe about androgynous individuals?

Answer 14

She suggested that high androgyny is associated with higher psychological wellbeing.
This is due to individuals who are roughly equal in feminine and masculine traits are better equipped to adapt to a range of situations. This is in contrast to non-androgynous individuals who would have difficulty with this due to having a narrower range of traits to draw from.

Question 15

Does over-representation of opposite gender characteristics equate to androgyny?

Answer 15

NO.

Over-representation of opposite gender characteristics does not mean they are androgynous.
It is exhibiting a necessary BALANCE of masculine and feminine traits

Question 16

What is used to measure androgyny?

Answer 16

• Bem sex role inventory (BSRI)

Question 17

Explain how the Bem Sex Role Inventory works

Answer 17

Bem (1974) created a scale that presents 20 characteristics that are commonly identified as masculine (‘competitive’ or ‘aggressive’) and 20 characteristics typically judged as feminine (‘tender’ and ‘gentle’).
In addition, there were 20 further ‘neutral’ traits included.

Respondents were required to rate themselves on a 7-point rating scale.
1: ‘never true of me’ to 7: ‘always true of me’

Scores were then classified on the basis of 2 dimensions: masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated.
Therefore the scores were classified as…

• High masculine-low feminine —> masculine
• Low masculine-high feminine —> feminine
• High masculine-high feminine —> androgynous
• Low masculine-low feminine—> undifferentiated

Question 18

Evaluate androgyny (including BSRI)

Answer 18

• Quantitative approach leading to qualitative
  A strength of Bem’s research into androgyny is that it is measured quantitatively.
  The Bem sex role inventory is numerically determined so it is useful for research purposes, for example, to quantify a dependent variable. Despite this, it is argued that there is more to gender then set behaviors deemed typical of one, so qualitative methods offer better analysis.
  To compromise, scales in androgyny research have been merged - the personal attribute questionnaire (PAQ) adds more dimensions to Bem’s set masculinity-femininity dimensions - looking at instrumentality and expressivity.
  This suggests that merging both quantitative and qualitative approaches is useful in terms of studying behavior and aspects of androgyny.
• Valid and reliable.
  A strength of the BSRI is, at the time of development, it appeared to be a valid and reliable method of measuring androgyny.
  The scale was developed by asking 50 men and 50 women judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how much they represented ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness’.
  The traits that scored the highest in each category became the 20 masculine and 20 feminine traits on the BSRI.
  The BSRI was then piloted with over 1000 students and the results broadly corresponded with the participants own description of their gender identity - demonstrating validity.
  Lastly, a follow up study with smaller samples with the SAME students produced similar scores when tested a month later - having TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY.
  This gives reason to believe the BSRI to be a valid and reliable measure.
• Limited temporal and cross-cultural validity.
  A limitation of the BSRI in measuring androgyny is potential for it to be outdated and ungeneralizable.
  The BSRI was developed over 40 years ago, so behaviors regarded ‘typical’ or ‘acceptable’ for a given gender may have shifted significantly since then.
  The BSRI was devised using only US participants - this means notions of ‘male’ or ‘female’ behavior may be interpreted differently between cultures.
  This suggests the BSRI is lacking in temporal validity and generalizability - making it a less suitable or inappropriate measure of gender identity today.
• Androgyny and wellbeing.
  A limitation of the BSRI with androgyny is that psychologists may criticize Bem’s claim that androgyny equates to better psychological wellbeing.
  Bem would argue that androgyny correlates with improved mental health due to androgynous individuals having a wider range of traits to draw from to adapt to situations that demand a specific trait. This notion has been challenged in the sense that some researchers argue that people who develop a greater proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted and therefore, more mentally well. This comes from the concept of individualist cultures apparent higher value of masculine traits. This means that Bem’s ideas, as a singular person, may be criticized or opposed by different perspectives as there is no basis to show this is true.

Question 19

What are chromosomes made of?

Answer 19

DNA

Question 20

What pair of chromosomes determine biological sex?

Answer 20

23rd pair of chromosomes

Question 21

What chromosomes are female and what chromosomes are male?

Answer 21

• Female: XX
• Male: XY

Question 22

What are all chromosomes produced by ovum and which chromosomes are produced by sperm

Answer 22

• Egg cell: Only X chromosomes
• Sperm: either X or Y (sperm determines sex)

Question 23

How many chromosomes are in a human body (and how many pairs)?

Answer 23

• 46 Chromosomes
• 23 Pairs

Question 24

What gene does Y chromosomes carry and what does it do?

Answer 24

• Carries the ‘sex determining region Y’ (SRY)
• Causes testes to develop in an XY embryo - producing androgens (male sex hormones)

Question 25

What is the role of hormones in gender development?

Answer 25

Although chromosomes initially determine a persons sex, hormones influence gender development.

Prenatally, hormones act upon brain development, influencing the development of reproductive organs.
During puberty, increased hormonal activity triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Question 26

What are the three hormones in gender (according to psych not bio)

Answer 26

• Testosterone
• Oestrogen
• Oxytocin

Question 27

What does testosterone do?

Answer 27

Testosterone is a male hormone (despite being present in small quantities in females)
It controls the development of male sex organs during foetal development.

Question 28

How is testosterone evolutionarily important?

Answer 28

High levels of testosterone are linked to adaptive aggressive behaviour.
- Aggression towards rivals to compete for fertile mate
- Role as hunters, being aggressive increases success.

Question 29

What does oestrogen do?

Answer 29

Oestrogen is a female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation.

Question 30

What is the side effects of oestrogen?

Answer 30

Oestrogen can cause some women to experience heightened emotions and irritability in pre menstrual disorder (PMD) or pre menstrual tension (PMT).
In extreme cases this has successfully been used as a defence in court for female shoplifters or even murderers.

Question 31

What would happen if a genetic female produced high levels of testosterone in the womb?

Answer 31

They may develop male sex organs in the womb

Question 32

What is oxytocin also referred to as?

Answer 32

The love hormone

Question 33

List what oxytocin causes

Answer 33

• Contraction in labour
• Lactation for breastfeeding
• Reduces cortisol
• Produced post labour to induce love for baby
• Facilitates bonding

Question 34

Do men produce oxytocin and what is a misconception surrounding this?

Answer 34

• Yes, but in smaller quantities than women
• Misconception: since men produce less, they are less interested in intimacy in a relationship.
  Despite this, they produce a roughly equal amount during amorous activity.

Question 35

Evaluate the role of chromosomes and hormones in gender development

Answer 35

• Evidence for testosterone interaction.
  One strength of the role of chromosomes and hormones in gender development is that there is evidence to support the role of hormones in gender development even in mature males.
  Christina Wang conducted a study linking testosterone and male sexual behavior.
  Wang studied men with hypogonadism, a condition caused by testes failing to produce normal level of testosterone. 227 hypogonadal men were given testosterone therapy for 180 days - and monitored changes in body shape, muscle strength, sexual function, libido and mood. Significant increases in muscle strength were observed within the sample, as well as sexual arousal.
  This study provides evidence that testosterone exerts a powerful and direct influence on male sexual arousal, as well as physical development even in the adult body.
• Social factors ignored.
  A limitation of biologically accounting for gender development with hormones and chromosomes is that it ignores social factors in gender related behavior.
  Hofstede claims that gender roles around the world are more consequences of social norms as opposed to biology. Psychologists equate notions of masculinity and femininity with whether who cultures are individualistic or collectivist. Countries that place individual competition and independence above community, according to Hofstede are more masculine in outlook, and these will subsequently be more valued.
  This challenges reductionist biological explanations of gender behavior, suggesting that social factors may be equally as important in shaping gendered behavior.
• Reductionist
  A limitation of using the biological role of hormones and chromosomes to explain gender development is that it is reductionist.
  Accounts reducing gender to hormones and chromosomes can be accused of underplaying or ignoring alternative explanations.
  The cognitive approach, as an alternative explanation, draws attention to the influence of thought processes such as schema.
  Even though thought processes may be altered in brain maturation, they are not adequately explained by the biological approach.
  In addition to this, the psychodynamic approach acknowledges biological maturation yet also includes childhood experience such as family interaction in gender development.
  This suggests that gender is more complex than biological influence alone.
• Pathologizing gender using hormones.
  A further limitations of just emphasizing importance of hormones is that it may be damaging to gender minorities.
  There are various conditions caused by fluctuating sex hormones, seen in the diagnosis of PMD. Psychologists may argue that this stereotypes women’s experiences and emotion, pushing the narrative that PMD is a social construction, not a biological fact that can create damaging gender based stereotypes. In contrast, others may argue that studying hormones attributed to gender can help diagnosis and treatment for medical symptoms. This outlines how corresponding gender to hormones can have complex effects that are socially sensitive.

Question 36

What is meant by atypical sex chromosome patterns?

Answer 36

Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation and which tends to be associated with distinct patterns of physical and psychological symptoms.

Question 37

What gender does Klinefelters syndrome apply to?

Answer 37

Biological males

Question 38

What are the two examples of atypical sex chromosome patterns?

Answer 38

• Klinefelters syndrome
• Turner’s syndrome

Question 39

What is the chromosome pattern in Klinefelters syndrome?

Answer 39

XXY

Question 40

Explain Klinefelters syndrome

Answer 40

Klinefelters syndrome is in biological males, affecting around 1/600.
The biological males have the anatomical appearance of a male - but have an additional X chromosome (XXY).
10% of cases are identified by prenatal diagnosis, however 2/3rds are not aware of it.
Most diagnosis occurs as a result of an unrelated medical examination.

Question 41

List the physical characteristics of Klinefelters syndrome

Answer 41

• Reduced body hair compared to an XY male
• Soft contours of the body
• Breast development at puberty
• Gangly and long limbs
• Underdeveloped genitals
• General clumsiness and issues w/ co-ordination
• Prone to common female health problems like breast cancer

Question 42

List the psychological characteristics of Klinefelters syndrome

Answer 42

• Linked to poorly developed language and reading ability
• Passive and shy
• Lack of interest in sexual activity
• Poor response to stressful situations
• Problems with executive functions (memory and problem solving)

Question 43

What gender does Turner’s syndrome affect?

Answer 43

Biological females

Question 44

What is the chromosome pattern in Turner’s syndrome?

Answer 44

XO

Question 45

Explain Turner’s syndrome

Answer 45

Atypical sex chromosome pattern that affects biological females. It affects 1/5000.
The genotype is XO due to the absence of one of the two allotted X chromosomes.
Those with Turner’s syndrome have 45 chromosomes rather than the usual 46.

Question 46

Explain Turner’s syndrome

Answer 46

Atypical sex chromosome pattern that affects biological females. It affects 1/5000.

Question 47

List the physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome

Answer 47

• Absence of period (amenorrhoea)
• Undeveloped ovaries (infertility)
• Breasts do not develop at puberty
• Have a broad ‘shield’ chest
• Webbed neck
• Low set ears
• High waist to hip ratio (hips are not much bigger than waist)
• Physical immaturity (retains appearance of prepubescent girl)

Question 48

List the psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome

Answer 48

• Higher than average reading ability.
• Lower than average performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks.
• Social immaturity
• Trouble relating to peers and difficulty ‘fitting in’.

Question 49

How is atypical sex chromosome patterns treated?

Answer 49

Hormone replacement therapy

Question 50

Evaluate atypical sex chromosome patterns

Answer 50

• Contribution to the nature nurture debate.
  A strength of research into atypical sex chromosome individuals is its contribution to the nature nurture debate.
  In comparing those with typical sex chromosome patterns to those without, it allows observation of psychological and behavioral differences attributed to chromosomes.
  This is seen in Turners syndrome in which the individuals tend to have a higher verbal ability than ‘typical’ females. From this logic, it can be inferred behavioral differences have a biological basis as a direct result of abnormal chromosome development.
  This supports the perspective that innate ‘nature’ influences have a more powerful effect on gendered psychology and behavior.
• Intervening nurture influence.
  In counterpoint of using cases of atypical chromosome patterned individuals to justify the ‘nature’ perspective is the issues involved in concluding this.
  The differences in behavior seen in those with atypical sex chromosomes is not casual in relationship. Environmental and social factors are arguably equally as responsible for any observed differences. For instance, the psychological characteristic of social immaturity in Turner’s syndrome. This psychological symptom may not be innate, it may be as a result of being treated immaturely due to their prepubescent appearance. Parents, teachers and other individuals may inadvertently encourage immaturity - having an impact on their further performance.
  This suggests that, in comparing behaviors of those with chromosomal conditions, it may be incorrect to reduce the psychological differences to biological influence only.
• Real world application.
  A strength of research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is the practical application in managing the syndromes.
  Expanding research on atypical sex chromosome patterns is that is can lead to earlier and more accurate diagnosis of Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome - creating positive outcomes.
  This was seen in an Australian study of people with Klinefelter’s. In this study, it was outlined that those who had been identified and treated earlier experienced significant benefits in managing their syndrome compared to those diagnosed later. This suggests that increasing research and awareness into atypical chromosome patterns may be beneficial for the individuals diagnosed.
• Sampling issue.
  One limitation of the description of Klinefelter’s (or Turners) syndrome is the potential sampling issue. To identify characteristics of XXY and XO individuals, it is necessary to identify a large number of individuals with the disorder to establish a database. In this way, we can assess the spectrum of characteristics ranging from mild to severe.
  In general, only individuals presenting with severe symptoms are likely to be identified and therefore the picture of typical symptoms may be distorted.
  It was reported that PROSPECTIVE studies following XXY from birth produced more accurate pictures of characteristics - many with this disorder do not experience significant cognitive or psychological issues - having academic success and living normal lives. This suggests that the typical picture of chromosomal disorders may be exaggerated.

Question 51

What was Kohlberg’s main argument for gender development?

Answer 51

His main argument was that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated due to biological maturation (as opposed to experience)

Question 52

What are the three stages of gender development in Kohlberg’s theory?

Answer 52

• Gender identity
• Gender stability
• Gender constancy

Question 53

What are the three stages of gender development in Kohlberg’s theory?

Answer 53

• Gender identity
• Gender stability
• Gender constancy

Question 54

At what ages do the different stages of gender development in Kohlberg’s theory happen?

Answer 54

• Gender identity: around 2-3
• Gender stability: around 4-5
• Gender constancy: around 6 onwards

Question 55

Name the 2 cognitive explanations for gender development

Answer 55

• Kohlberg’s theory
• Gender schema theory

Question 56

Outline Kohlberg’s stage 1: Gender identity

Answer 56

Gender identity
At 2 years, a child is able to correctly identify themselves as a boy or a girl, and processes the ability to label others as such.
Despite this, their understanding of gender doesn’t stretch beyond simple labelling.
They don’t see gender as fixed at this stage.

Question 57

Outline Kohlberg’s stage 2: gender stability

Answer 57

At 4 children acquire gender stability.
The child understands their gender is fixed (they will remain the same gender overtime and they will be a man/woman as they age).
They cannot apply this logic to others and will be confused by external changes in appearance, such as a man with long hair who’d be described as a woman by them.
They also believe others gender can change according to the activity they are engaging in (such as a builder who is a woman or a nurse who is a man).

Question 58

Outline Kohlberg’s stage 3: Gender constancy

Answer 58

Occurring at around 6, children realise that gender remains the same over time and between situations.
They begin to identify with people of their own gender and then will adopt behaviours stereotypically appropriate for their gender.

They are able to apply this understanding to others so won’t be confused by external appearance, a man in a dress will still be recognised as a man.

Question 59

How are role models involved in gender constancy (Kohlberg’s theory)

Answer 59

Children at the age of gender constancy will seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify with and imitate (brings in SLT values).
At stage 3, they actively search for evidence to confirm this concept.
From this, they develop a tendency towards gender stereotyping at this age.

Question 60

How does social learning theory differ from imitation seen in gender constancy?

Answer 60

Kohlberg’s believed that once gender constancy was reached , the child will seek out a same gender role model to imitate, however, in SLT, processes like these would occur at any age.

Question 61

Evaluate Kohlberg’s gender development stage theory (cognitive explanation)

Answer 61

• Research support for gender constancy
  One strength of Kohlberg’s theory is evidence suggesting that gender stereotyping will emerge around the age of 6, as predicted by the gender constancy stage.
  A study included telling children a story about George, a boy who liked to play with dolls - children were then asked to comment on the story. 4 year olds said it was fine to play with dolls whereas 6 year olds thought it was wrong for George to play with dolls.
  The 6 year olds had internalized the understanding of what boys and girls do, in turn developing rules of what they ought to do - GENDER STEREOTYPING.
  This suggests, children who have reached constancy have formed rigid stereotypes regarding gender appropriate behavior, corresponding to gender constancy stage.
• OPPOSING COUNTERPOINT
  A counterpoint to research evidence supporting gender constancy is research that challenges this stage. Bussey and Bandura found children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender appropriate toys and had negative feelings about doing the opposite.
  This contradicts Kohlberg’s theory that gender-appropriate behavior develops at 6, instead supporting gender schema theory that suggests children absorb gender-appropriate information as soon as they identify with being a boy or girl.
• Methodological limitations
  A limitation of Kohlberg’s theory is that supporting evidence relies on unsatisfactory methods to assess gender development.
  There is criticism into methodology attempting to link gender to cognitive development - this is due to demand characteristics and other factors that influence validity.
  Young children may answer in a way they believe the adult researcher wants to hear, making the results unrealistic. In addition, they may not even have the capability to communicate their ideas, leading to more interpretation from the researchers perspective.
  As a result, this creates issues with validity and therefore may misrepresent children’s actual process of gender development.
• Does not account for separate factors
  A limitation of Kohlberg’s gender development theory is that it disregards other factors that contribute to how gender is developed.
  A first example is that it ignores differences between male and female children - Slaby and Frey found that boys were more likely to have emphasis on gender differences as opposed to girls. this means that Kohlberg’s theory may be guilty of beta bias, underemphasizing how different sexes process gender. In addition, Kohlberg’s theory does not overly extend into why gender development follows these stages - showing little cause and effect insight.
  This means that Kohlberg’s stages may be less comprehensive as an explanation for gender development due to missing key aspects.

Question 62

Define gender schema

Answer 62

• An organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience

Question 63

What does gender schema do?

Answer 63

Guide a persons understanding of their own gender and stereotypical gender appropriate behavior in general.

Question 64

Who created gender schema theory?

Answer 64

Martin and Halverson

Question 65

What are the similarities between Kohlberg’s theory and gender schema theory?

Answer 65

• Both Kohlberg and gender schema theory share the view that children develop understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning rather than passively observing and imitating role models (seen in social learning theory)

Question 66

What are schema in general AND how does it relate to gender schema ?

Answer 66

• Mental constructs that develop via experiences (however some are present at birth in basic form), our cognitive systems use these to organise knowledge relevant to a topic
• For gender, gender schema is a generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and stereotypical behaviour

(generalised representations, organised set of beliefs, mental constructs - DEVELOP VIA EXPERIENCE)

Question 67

According to Martin and Halverson, what happen after a child has established gender identity at 2-3.

Answer 67

They will begin to search for information that encourages the development of gender schema.

Question 68

How is gender schema theory different from Kohlberg’s theory?

Answer 68

• Kohlberg believed that the process of actively searching for information that reinforces gender development occurs after passing through the 3 stages to gender constancy.
• In gender schema theory this can occur after gender identity at 2-3.

Question 69

How does gender schema determine behaviour?

Answer 69

Gender schema can expand to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits.

In young children, schema is formed around stereotypes (boys playing with trucks and girls playing with dolls) - this provides a framework that directs experience and understanding.

This leads to the age of 6 where children have a fixed and stereotypically based idea about what is appropriate for their gender.

Question 70

Until the age of 6, in what way do outgroups and ingroups influence children’s gender schema

Answer 70

Children are likely to misremember and disregard information that does not fit with their existing schema (in group)
This was dependent on whether the schemas were consistent with their own gender (ingroup) or whether they were consistent with the opposite sex (outgroup)

Question 71

What happens at 6-8 regarding schemas for outgroups?

Answer 71

Children develop elaborate schema for both genders, as opposed to just their own ingroup.

Question 72

What effect does identifying with the ingroup have?

Answer 72

Bolsters the child’s self esteem

Question 73

Evaluate gender schema theory

Answer 73

• Research support
  One strength of gender schema theory is that it’s key principles are supported by evidence.
  Martin and Halverson, who proposed gender schema theory, found that children under the age of 6 were more likely to remember photographs of stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour (such as a girl playing with dolls) compared to photos of ‘gender-inappropriate behaviour’ (such as a woman fixing a car). This recall was tested a week later. Children had the tendency to change the gender of the person carrying out the ‘gender-inappropriate’ activity of the photograph so that the gender behaviour was more appropriate.
  This offers support for gender schema theory - predicting that children under 6 years old would do this.
• Earlier gender identity
  One limitation of gender schema theory is that gender identity probably develops earlier than Martin and Halverson predicted.
  A longitudinal study of 82 children looked at the onset of gender identity. Data was collected bi-weekly from reports from mothers on their children’s language from 9-21 months, alongside videotaped analysis of them at play. The key measure of gender identity was how and when children labelled themselves as a ‘boy’ or ‘girl’.
  This occurred, on average, at around 19 months - as soon as children had begun to communicate, suggesting that children have gender identity before this but do not communicate it.
  This suggests Martin and Halverson may have underestimated a child’s ability to use gender labels around themselves.
• Counterpoint to time inaccuracy
  In counterpoint, it may not be appropriate to argue for specific ages of onset in gender schema theory.
  Martin and Halverson, following principles of cognitive development, suggest that there are average points of shifts in gender development as opposed to absolutes.
  There is a disregard that children may progress through these stages quicker or slower than others, suggesting that it is the sequence of development that is more important.
  This implies that findings of earlier gender identity do not offer a fundamental criticism of the theory.
• Cultural differences
  A strength of gender schema theory is that they can account for how cultural differences interact with ‘stereotypical gender-appropriate’ behaviours.
  Kendra Cherry argued that gender schema not only influence how people process information but also influences culturally-appropriate gender behaviour. Traditional cultures that believe a woman should take a nurturing domestic role whilst men pursue careers. These traditional cultures will raise children to form a schema consistent with these views. In societies with a less rigid perception of gender, children are more likely to acquire gender schema that is more fluid. Relating this to gender schema, it explains how gender schema is transmitted through members of society and how cultural differences for gender stereotypes came about.
  This contrasts with other explanations of gender development such as psychodynamic (which suggests gender develops as a result of unconscious biological drives).

Question 74

Name the two other explanations for gender development

Answer 74

• Social learning theory explanation
• Psychodynamic explanation

Question 75

According to Freud, in what psychosexual stage does gender development occur in?

Answer 75

• The phallic stage (3rd stage)

Question 76

What, in the phallic stage, is crucial for gender identity?

Answer 76

The Oedipus complex (for males) or the Electra complex (for females)

Question 77

Outline the process of gender development in the Oedipus complex

Answer 77

• The boy enters the phallic stage, where the penis is the focus of pleasure.
• The boy develops sexual attraction towards his mother and sees the father as a rival.
• The boy is fearful as they see that their father is more powerful than them so they could be castrated if their father discovered this desire.
• To resolve his castration anxiety, the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identity with his father.
• The boy, therefore adopts the attitudes and behaviours of their father to develop a male identity through identification.

Question 78

Outline the process of gender development in the Electra complex

Answer 78

• In the phallic stage the focus of pleasure is the genitals and girls notice that they do not have a penis and experience penis envy.
• Girls see their mother as a love rival standing in the way of them and their father
• They believe that they have been castrated by their mothers, blaming her for their lack of penis
• To resolve this, they substitute penis envy with the desire to have children, so identify with their mothers
• They adopt the attitudes and behaviours of their mother and develop a female identity through identification.

Question 79

Who proposed the Oedipus complex and who proposed the Electra complex?

Answer 79

• Oedipus complex: Freud
• Electra complex: Jung

Question 80

In psychodynamic theory, what is identification?

Answer 80

A desire to be associated with a particular person or group due to them possessing certain desirable characteristics.

Question 81

In psychodynamic theory, what is internalisation?

Answer 81

An individual adopting the attitudes and/or behaviours of another.

Question 82

What casestudy supported the Oedipus complex?

Answer 82

Little Hans

Question 83

How is identification and internalisation present in psychodynamic theory.

Answer 83

• The main point of Freuds theory is that both sexes identify with the same gender parent to resolve their complexes.
• Identification occurs as they have the desire to be associated with the same gender parent due to them having desirable characteristics.
• Boys adopt attitudes of their fathers, girls adopt the attitudes of their mothers through internalisation - receiving a ‘second hand gender’ at the end of the phallic stage.

Question 84

Evaluate the psychodynamic explanation of gender development.

Answer 84

• Support for role of Oedipus complex
  A strength of Freuds theory is that there is support for the role of the Oedipus complex in gender development.
  Freudian gender development explanation means, for boys, ‘normal’ development depends on being raised by at least one male parent. In terms of research support, 49 boys were rated on their gender identity based on interviews with them and their families. For those who were ‘gender disturbed’ 75% had neither their biological father or a substitute father living with them. This suggests that having an absence of a father figure may have a negative impact on gender identity - predicted by Freudian theory.
• Counterpoint to importance of father figure.
  In counterpoint, the relationship between absent fathers and gender identity issues is not overly supported. A study compared data from children where their parents were lesbian and other children with traditional families. It was found that children from lesbian households felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes, and were less likely to assume their own gender is superior. There were no differences in terms of psychosocial adjustment or gender identity. This contradicts Freuds theory as it suggests that fathers are not always necessary for healthy gender identity development.
• Female development
  A limitation of psychodynamic gender theory is that Freud provides an inadequate account for women’s development. Although Freud wrote extensively about the Oedipus complex, theory on how girls parallel this was undertaken by Carl Jung. Freud admitted women were ‘a mystery’ to him and his notion of penis envy is criticised for reflecting the androcentric Victorian era where men held most power.
  If reversed, men would have womb envy which would be a more prominent experience in response to women’s ability to sustain life, according to another psychodynamic psychologist.
  Summarising this point, it may be cultural rather than biological - challenging the idea that women’s development is founded on a desire to be like a man.
• Pseudoscientific
  Another limitation is that the psychodynamic explanation lacks scientific credibility. Freud has been criticised for lack of rigour in his methods, such as using subjective casestudies.
  Many psychodynamic concepts (such as penis envy) are untestable due to being largely unconscious.
  This contrasts against other explanations for gender development that are based on objective, verifiable evidence from controlled lab studies. Therefore, this makes Freud’s theory pseudoscientific as his ideas are unfalsifiable. This questions the validity of Freud’s theory due to not being based on research up to scientific standard.

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Question 85

What is social learning theory as an explanation of gender development?

Answer 85

A way of explaining gender that believes that all behaviour, including gender related behaviour, is learned from observing others.
In short, the environment shapes gender development

Question 86

According to social learning theory, what are the two reinforcements that impact gender development?

Answer 86

• Direct reinforcement (including differential reinforcement)
• Vicarious reinforcement

Question 87

How does direct reinforcement work in gender development? (SLT)

Answer 87

Children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is stereotypically gender appropriate.

Differential reinforcement is the way in which boys or girls are encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviour.
Through differential reinforcement a child learns gender identity as they are more likely to repeat a behaviour that has been reinforced (directly or even indirectly)

Question 88

Give an example of differential reinforcement for each sex.

Answer 88

♂ Boys may be encouraged to be active and engage in sports, being rewarded with trophies and praise whilst experiencing disapproval (negative reinforcement) for dressing up.

♀ Girls may be praised for playing with dolls whilst aggressive behaviour such as ‘rough and tumble’ play may be punished.

Question 89

How does indirect (vicarious) reinforcement work in gender development? (SLT)

Answer 89

If the consequences of another’s behaviour is favourable, that displayed behaviour is more likely to be imitated by the child.
This works the opposite way in that if the consequences are unfavourable, the child is less likely to imitate this.

Question 90

Give examples of vicarious reinforcement in gender development.

Answer 90

♀ If a girl sees her mother be complimented for her makeup or dress, the girl would likely repeat this when able. (positive indirect reinforcement)

♂ If a boy sees another boy be made fun of for displaying feminine behaviour, they are unlikely to copy this. (negative indirect reinforcement)

Question 91

What comes under social learning theory for gender development?

Answer 91

• Reinforcement (direct and indirect), including differential reinforcement
• Identification and modelling
• Meditational processes

Question 92

What is identification in social learning theory (gender development)

Answer 92

The process whereby a child attaches themselves to a person that is “like them” or who they want to be due to them possessing desirable qualities (these are role models)

Question 93

What is modelling in SLT theory of gender development?

Answer 93

• From the role models perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a behavior that may be imitated by an observer
• Modelling can also be used to explain learning from THE observer

Question 94

Give an example of modelling with gender development

Answer 94

• A mother, a role model, may demonstrate feminine behavior such as modelling for her daughter to copy.
• From the observers perspective, a little girl may replicate behavior she has witnessed in feeding a doll.

Question 95

What are mediational processes in SLT theory on gender development?

Answer 95

Mediational processes are cognitive processes central to learning of gendered behavior.

Question 96

What are the four mediational processes in SLT?

Answer 96

• Attention
• Retention
• Motivation
• Motor reproduction

Question 97

Give an example of how mediational processes can work in gender development.

Answer 97

• Attention
  A boy may want to emulate his favourite footballer by paying close attention to what he does.
• Retention
  The boy will remember the skills the footballer showed and will think to reproduce these during play later.
• Motivation
  The desire to repeat the behavior comes from wanting to be like the footballer role model (identification)
• Motor reproduction
  The boy must be physically capable of doing it

Question 98

Evaluate social learning theory as an explanation of gender development

Answer 98

• Research support
  A strength of SLT approach is that key principles have supporting evidence.
  A study involved 4-6 month old babies that were dressed 1/2 the time in boys clothes and the other 1/2 in girls clothes. When observed interacting with adults, babies assumed to be ‘boys’ were more likely to be given a hammer shaped rattle and encouraged to be adventurous. When the same babies were dressed as girls they were more likely to be handed a cuddly toy, told they were pretty and reinforced for being passive. This acts in support of the principle of differential reinforcement, suggesting that gender-appropriate behaviour is exerted from an early age, seen in SLT.
• Less comprehensive explanation
  A limitation of SLT is that principles such as differential reinforcement may not be the primary cause of gender differences in behaviour. Using the previous study as an example, adults interacting with children may simply be a response to innate gender differences that are already present. For example, the observation that boys are encouraged to be active in play may be the result of them naturally being more active anyway due to hormonal differences.
  This suggests that it is likely that social learning theory acts as only a part of explanations into how children acquire gender related behaviour.
• Cultural differences.
  Another strength of social learning theory is that it can offer explanation to cultural changes in stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour. In between now and the 1950s, the clear cut distinction between masculine and feminine behaviour in a culture has become less defined. There has been no corresponding changes in peoples basic biology, so a shift in what is classed as gender-stereotypical behaviour is best explained by SLT rather than the biological approach.
  This shift in social expectations and cultural norms over the years has meant new forms of gender behaviour are now unlikely to be punished, and may even be reinforced. This shows that social learning theory is an approach that can account for cultural changes in gendered behaviour.
• No developmental sequence acknowledged.
  A limitation of SLT in explaining gender development is that it does not provide an adequate explanation into how learning processes change with age.
  The general law of social learning theory is that modelling of gender appropriate behaviour can happen at any age.
  It is, however, illogical that children who are two years old learn in the same way as nine year old children. This conflicts against Kohlberg’s theory that believes that children do not become active in their gender development until gender constancy. This suggests that influence of age and maturation in developing gender concepts is not a factor considered by SLT.

Question 99

What is culture?

Answer 99

The ideas, customs and social behavior of a particular group of people or society

Question 100

What is media?

Answer 100

Communication channels such as TV, film and books through which news, entertainment and education are delivered

Question 101

What does cross-cultural research contribute to and why? (in the context of gender roles)

Answer 101

• The nature-nurture debate
• It shows, if a particular gender role behavior appears to be consistent across different cultures, we may conclude that this is an innate biological difference.
• If we find some gender role behaviors are culturally specific we may assume it is the influence of socialization

Question 102

Who studied cultural differences in gender roles (through cross-cultural studies)?

Answer 102

Mead

Question 103

What did Mead find in cross cultural research into cultural differences?

Answer 103

In Papua New Guinea…

• The Arapesh were gentle and responsive (stereotype of femininity in industrialized societies)
• The Mundugmor were aggressive and hostile (similar to the stereotype of masculinity in industrialized societies)
• The Tchambuli women were dominant and organised village life, whereas men were passive and considered decorative (reverse of industrialized society stereotypes)

Question 104

What did Mead’s research into gender roles in Papua New Guinea show?

Answer 104

• There may not be a direct biological influence between sex and gender, so gender roles may be culturally determined.
• In short, the extent to which innate behaviors are expressed is largely the result of cultural norms.

Question 105

Who were the researchers involved in studying cultural similarities in gender roles?

Answer 105

• Buss
• Munroe and Munroe

Question 106

What did David Buss find in support of cultural similarities in gender roles?

Answer 106

• Buss found consistent patterns in mate preference (a gender role behavior) in 37 countries and across all continents.
• In all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources whereas men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a partner.

Question 107

What did Munroe and Munroe find in support of cultural similarities in gender roles?

Answer 107

• In a study Munroe and Munroe revealed that in most societies, division of labor is organised according to gender - men typically are the ‘bread-winners’ whereas women take domestic tasks.

Question 108

Evaluate the influence of culture on gender roles (2 evaluations)

Answer 108

• Hofstede research support
  The influence of culture on changing gender roles is supported by evidence. Hofstede argues that in industrialised cultures where the changing status and expectations of women are a result of their increasingly active role in the workplace, away from domesticity. This has eroded the traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies. In traditional societies women still occupy the role of ‘home-maker’ as a result of cultural, social and religious pressures.
  This suggests that gender roles are very much determined by cultural contexts.
• Criticism of Mead’s tribe research.
  One limitation of Mead’s cross-cultural research of gender roles has been criticised. Mead has been accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study. creating the first criticism of temporal validity. In a follow-up study years later, Freeman argued that Mead’s findings in Papua New Guinea were flawed as she had been mislead by participants, and her preconceptions of what she would find influenced her perception of findings.
  This is an example of both observer vias and ethnocentrism. As a result, this suggests Mead’s interpretation may not have been objective which calls into question the validity of conclusions she drew.

Question 109

How do the media influence gender roles?

Answer 109

The media provide role models with whom children may identify with and want to imitate - including imitating role models who match their gender and engage in gender-appropriate behavior.

Question 110

What are the two components of medias influence on gender roles?

Answer 110

• Rigid stereotypes
• Self-efficacy

Question 111

What is meant by ‘rigid stereotypes’ in media and gender roles

Answer 111

The idea that the media provide very clear gender stereotypes that are rigid.

Men are independent and ambitious whilst women are dependent and unambitious according to Bussey and Bandura

Question 112

What researchers studied media and gender roles?

Answer 112

• Furnham and Farragher (rigid stereotypes)
• Mitra et al (self-efficacy)

Question 113

Outline the study done by Furnham and Farragher into rigid stereotypes and its results.

Answer 113

• Furnham and Farragher studied TV adverts.
• In TV adverts, men were more likely to be shown in professional autonomous roles whereas women were often seen occupying domestic roles.
• This shows that the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes for gender-appropriate behavior.

Question 114

What is meant by self-efficacy with media and gender roles?

Answer 114

Where seeing other people perform gender-appropriate behavior increases a child’s belief that they are capable of carrying out such behaviors in the future.

Question 115

How does the media create self-efficacy?

Answer 115

In addition to confirming gender-stereotypical behavior, it gives information to men and women the likely success, or otherwise, of adopting these behaviors.

Question 116

Outline Mitra’s study into self-efficacy in media on gender roles.

Answer 116

• Mitra analysed the attitudes of people in India who watched a program designed to challenge deep-rooted gender stereotypes.
• Girls who watched the detective drama were more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home compared to non-viewers.
• This suggests self-efficacy had changed as a result of media influence.

Question 117

Evaluate medias influence on gender roles (2 points)

Answer 117

• Cultivation theory
  One strength of research into media influence on gender roles is it’s theoretical basis. Cultivation theory argues that the more time individuals spend ‘living’ in the media world, the more likely they are to believe this reflects social reality. In research, there was a positive correlation found between time spent watching the reality TV show Jersey Shore and permissive attitudes towards casual sex.
  This effect prevailed even when researchers controlled for the influence of existing sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religion.
  This suggests media ‘cultivates’ perception of reality, which can be applied to gender behaviour.
• Not passive recipients
  One limitation of gender roles and media is that there may not be a casual relationship. Psychologists argue that even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages. With this in mind, norms within the child’s family setting may be a bigger determinant on the child’s gender attitudes and behaviour. If media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family then they are likely to be reinforced in the child’s mind. In the case where media contradicts the existing gender norms, such representations are likely to be rejected.
  This suggests that media influences are secondary to other influences such as family dynamics.

Question 118

What is gender dysphoria?

Answer 118

Where there is an conflict (mismatch) between biological sex and gender identity, causing discomfort and distress.

Question 119

What two overview explanations for atypical gender development are there?

Answer 119

• Biological explanations
• Social explanations

Question 120

List the 3 biological explanations for gender dysphoria

Answer 120

• Brain sex theory
• Genetics
• Hormones (links to BST)

Question 121

What are the 3 social explanations for gender dysphoria?

Answer 121

• Social constructionism
• Psychoanalytic theory
• Social learning theory

Question 122

What is brain sex theory in explaining gender dysphoria?

Answer 122

Brain sex theory is a theory for GD concerning how brain anatomy / structure influences gender dysphoria.

Question 123

What brain structure is looked at under brain sex theory for GD?

Answer 123

The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST)

Question 124

What is the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis responsible for?

Answer 124

Emotional responses and male sexual behavior in rats.

Question 125

Who studied brain sex theory?

Answer 125

Kruijver

Question 126

What did Kruijver find surrounding the BST?

Answer 126

• The BST is larger in male brains compared to female brains
• In transgender females (biological men at birth) this area was found to be female sized.
• In a follow up study on 6 transgender women, Kruijver found that these individuals showed an average BST neuron number in the female range.

Question 127

How can hormones affect gender dysphoria?

Answer 127

• Similar to brain sex theory, hormones account for male and female brains developing differently.
• Male and female brains develop structurally differently due to hormones they have been exposed to pre-natally.
• For those with GD, this could be a result of hormones altering brain structure from not producing appropriate androgens or not responding to them.

Question 128

What two psychologists studied genetic factors in atypical gender development?

Answer 128

• Coolidge
• Heylens

Question 129

Outline Coolidge’s study into genetics and gender dysphoria

Answer 129

• Coolidge assessed 157 twin pairs (96 MZ and 61 DZ) for evidence of GD.
• 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetics, suggesting GD has a high heritable component.

Question 130

Outline Heylens study into genetics and gender dysphoria

Answer 130

• Heylens compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where one twin in the pair were diagnosed with GD
• 9/23 (39% of the twins) were concordant for gender dysphoria compared to 0% of the DZ twins.

Question 131

Evaluate biological explanations for atypical gender development (2 points)

Answer 131

• Contradictory BST evidence
  One limitation of brain sex theory is that it’s central claims are challenged in research.
  In a study looking at structural changes in transgender individuals brains using MRI scans, hormonal treatments were considered as factors that impact this. Scans revealed that the size of the BST changed significantly over a period of hormone therapy. Referring back to Kruijver’s studies, the BST was examined in a post-mortem and AFTER they had received hormone therapy as gender reassignment. This suggests that BST differences are more likely due to the effects of hormone therapy for gender affirming treatment, rather than the pre-existing cause of gender dysphoria.
• Other brain differences.
  One strength of brain sex theory as a biological explanation is that evidence suggests there are other anatomical differences associated with GD.
  Rametti studied another sexually dimorphic aspect of the brain - white matter. There are regional differences in proportions of white matter between males and females. In analysing the brains of both male and female transgenders, BEFORE they had undergone hormone treatment the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender identity of the individuals rather than biological sex.
  This suggests that there, infact, are early differences in the brains of transgender individuals.

Question 132

What does social constructionism argue in relation to gender

Answer 132

• Social constructionism argues that gender identity concepts are ‘invented’ by societies, not reflecting biological differences

Question 133

How does social constructionism account for gender dysphoria?

Answer 133

Those with gender dysphoria have ‘confusion’ due to society forcing people to be either a ‘man’ or ‘woman’ - so they have to pick a side and act accordingly.

Question 134

What researchers citation supports social constructionism and what was it about?

Answer 134

• McClintock cited Sambian tribes people with a genetic condition

Question 135

What did McClintock cite in a study on the Sambian tribe of New Guinea that supports social constructionism (atypical gender development)

Answer 135

• The Sambian tribe of New Guinea had individuals with a genetic condition (5-alpha-reductase-deficiency).
• Due to the condition, some biological males were categorised as girls at birth due to having a labia and clitoris.
• At puberty their genitals changed due to an influx of testosterone - their testes descended and clitoris enlarged into a penis.
• As this genetic condition is common in the Sambian, some are males, some are females and some are categorised under a third gender - ‘females-then-males’.
• This supports social constructionism in the sense that, in this society there is a whole separate gender identity created for those with this experience.

Question 136

What researchers supported psychoanalytic theory for gender dysphoria?

Answer 136

• Ovesey and Person
• Stoller

Question 137

What did Ovesey and Person believe is the cause of gender dysphoria?

Answer 137

• Social relationships within the family.
• Gender dysphoria, in biological males is caused by a boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established.
  The boy fantasises of symbiotic fusion with the mother as a means to resolve this anxiety.
  As a result, the boy ‘becomes’ the mother, adopting her gender identity.

Question 138

What did Stoller find in support of psychoanalytic theory of GD

Answer 138

Stoller reported from interviews with GD biological males that they displayed an overly close relationship with their mothers.
This suggests stronger female identification which caused conflicts in gender identity.

Question 139

Evaluate social explanations for atypical gender development (gender dysphoria)

Answer 139

• Comprehensive explanations in social constructionism.
  One strength of the social constructionism perspective is that not all cultures have two genders. Some cultures, such as the Sambia of New Guinea and the Fa’afine of Samoa recognise more than two genders. This is a challenge to traditional binary classifications of male and female. In the modern day, increasing numbers of people now describe themselves as ‘non-binary’ meaning that cultural understanding is only now beginning to reflect the experiences of many. This suggests that gender idenitity, and dysphoria, is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact.
• Criticism of psychoanalytic theory.
  One limitation of the psychoanalytic theory of atypical gender development is issues with this account. Ovesey and Person’s explanation does not provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females as their theory is only applicable to transgender women (those assigned male at birth but identify as female). Even with transgender females. it has been found that gender dysphoria in these individuals is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father rather than separation anxiety concerning the mother.
  This suggests that psychoanalytic theory does not provide a comprehensive account of gender dysphoria for all genders.