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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

If it reflects real life

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2
Q

Define Operationalisation

A

When variables are clearly defined in terms of how they can be tested and measured (should be in the hypothesis) e.g reaction time in secs, number of…

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3
Q

What is an experimental method?

A

The manipulation of variables to establish cause and effect relationships

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4
Q

Define a Directional hypothesis

A

States the direction of the predicted difference (one-tailed)

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5
Q

Define a Non-directional hypothesis

A

States that there will be a difference but we don’t know what direction the difference will be. (two-tailed)

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6
Q

Define a Null hypothesis

A

Statements of equality, statements of no relationship, statements of no casual relationship.

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7
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

Any variable (other than IV) that may affect the DV if not controlled.

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8
Q

Define investigator effect

A

Any investigator behaviour that may effect the outcome.

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9
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Any cues from the researcher or situation that might reveal the purpose to the participants, therefore may act in a different way.

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10
Q

Define standardisation

A

Using the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants

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11
Q

What is randomisation?

A

Using ‘chance methods’ to control investigator effects in the design of research

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12
Q

Name the two types of extraneous variables

A
  • Participant (individual differences)
  • Situational (experimental situation)
              may effect the DV
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13
Q

Define the experimental design ‘matched pairs’ and its + and -

A

Pairs of p’s are matched on variables that may effect the DV (e.g IQ or age), then assigned to condition A or B.

+Order effect is not an issue
-Time consuming and expensive to match, especially id a pre-test is needed

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14
Q

Define the experimental design ‘independent groups’ and its + and -

A

Two separate groups of p’s experience two different conditions.

+Order effect is not an issue
-Twice as many p’s are needed, more time and money needed

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15
Q

Define the experimental design ‘repeated measures’ and its + and -

A

All p’s will experience all conditions of the experiment.
→Counterbalancing: Half the p’s experience one order, the other half in the opposite order

+Less people needed
-Order effect may occur

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16
Q

What is Validity?

A

Whether something is true or legitimate

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17
Q

Explain the 2 types of validity and the 3 subsections if these

A

Internal- within the research setting
External- outside the context of the study
-ecological: places/settings
-population: people
-temporal: time

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18
Q

What is reliability?

A

A measure of whether something stays the same.

Can do ‘test retest reliability’ where the study is repeated

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19
Q

Define a Laboratory experiment and evaluate

A

Highly controlled environment, doesn’t have to be a lab.

+High control over EVs
+Replication more possible
-Tasks lack realism, aware being tested (demand characteristics)

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20
Q

Define a Field experiment and evaluate

A

The IV is manipulated in a natural environment.

+Realistic environment, high external validity
-Less control over EV
-No consent
-Replication is hard

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21
Q

Define a Natural experiment and evaluate

A

Like a field, yet there is no control over the IV

+High external validly
+Can apply to real life
-No control over extraneous variables

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22
Q

Explain a Quasi experiment and evaluate

A

The IV is based on existing differences of the people e.g age or gender. The DV may be naturally occurring or developed.

+Controlled
-As the IV is not in control of researcher, cannot claim it caused change

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23
Q

Define what a Confounding variable is

A

A type of extraneous variable that vary systematically with the IV, so we can’t be sure of the true source of change to the DV

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24
Q

What is random allocation with regards to Independent groups?

A

Ensures all participants have the same chance of being allocated to a condition

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25
Q

BPS produced a code of ethics, what does it stand for?

A

British Psychological Society

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26
Q

What are the ethical considerations, and can you explain them?

A

RIP DDC

Right to withdraw -allowed to leave at any point

Informed consent -consent to take part, fully aware of aims and consequences

Protection from harm -from psychological and physiological harm including distress and embarrassment

Deception -not be deceptive, can’t lie about aim

Debrief -to return them to their original state, reveal details

Confidentiality -their info is protected

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27
Q

What are the sampling methods?

A

VOSSR

Volunteer (self selection)
Opportunity
Systematic
Stratified
Random

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28
Q

What is volunteer sampling and evaluate it?

A

Participants select themselves

+Easy to conduct
-Unrepresentative sample

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29
Q

What is opportunity sampling and evaluate it?

A

Selecting anyone available to take part

+Quick and easy
-May not be representative of target population

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30
Q

What is systematic sampling and evaluate it?

A

When every nth person is selected from a list

+No bias
-Time consuming

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31
Q

What is stratified sampling and evaluate it?

A

Same percentage of people in a subgroup in the sample as the target population

+Good cross section of people, reflects population
-Time consuming

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32
Q

What is random sampling and evaluate it?

A

A list of the target population, into a random name generator

+No bias
-Unrepresentative

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33
Q

Define Target population

A

A group of people who are the focus of a researchers interest

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34
Q

Define Sample

A

A group who take part in the research taken from the target population

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35
Q

What is a Pilot study?

A

A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted.

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36
Q

Why might you want to do a Pilot Study?

A

-Identifying extraneous variables
-Are you actually testing what you want to test
-Do materials work
-Is it a replicable procedure
-Do you need to make any changes

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37
Q

What is a single blind procedure?

A

Ps are not aware of the aim or what condition they are in if there is on

+No demand characteristics

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38
Q

What is a double blind procedure?

A

Neither the Ps or the researcher are aware of the true aim of the research

+No investigator effect
-No bias

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39
Q

Define what control groups are

A

A baseline for comparison- if there is a significant difference between them and the experimental group, we know it was the IV.

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40
Q

Define self-report methods

A

Research methods that ask Ps about their own thoughts, feelings and opinions.

-Interviews
-Questionnaires

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41
Q

What are closed and open questions?

A

Closed- Yes or no answers, short

Open- Longer answers and more detail

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42
Q

There are 3 types of closed questions, what are they?

A
  • Likert scale
  • Rating scale
  • Fixed choice option
43
Q

What is a Likert Scale?

A

Respondent indicates their agreement with a statement based on a scale of points

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

44
Q

What is a rating scale?

A

Like a likert scale but respondents identify a value that represents their feelings

        1. 5
45
Q

What is a fixed-choice option?

A

A list of possible options and respondents indicate those that apply to them.

-Horror
-Rom com
-Comedy

46
Q

What are some considerations when designing questions?

A

-No leading questions
-No bias
-No double barrelled questions
-No harm or distress
-Understandable

47
Q

Define what a Correlation is

A

A researcher investigates an association between two co-variables

48
Q

What are co-variables?

A

The variables investigated in a correlation

49
Q

What is a positive correlation?

A

As one variable increases the other increases

50
Q

What is a negative correlation?

A

As one variable increases, the other decreases

51
Q

What does no correlation mean?

A

No relationship between variables

52
Q

Evaluate correlations

A

+Practical and less time consuming
+Open doors for new research
-Doesn’t establish cause and effect
-More co-variables may cause effect

53
Q

What is Qualitative data?

A

Information expressed in words not numbers

-Open questions
-Interviews

54
Q

What is Quantitative data?

A

Information that can be counted

-Closed questions
-Multiple choice questions

55
Q

Evaluate Qualitative data

A

+More detail
+High external validity

-Subjective
-Difficult to analyse = time consuming

56
Q

Evaluate Quantitative data

A

+Easier to analyse
+Objective
+ Less chance of bias

-Lacks detail
-Less chance of real world application

57
Q

What is primary data?

A

Information that has been obtained first hand by the researcher

58
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Information from someone other than the researcher

59
Q

Evaluate the use of primary data

A

+Suits the aim of the research
+Authentic

-Takes more time and effort
-Possibly costly

60
Q

Evaluate secondary data

A

+Already checked, less time and money
+Easy to access

-May not exactly for what the researchers want
-May be out of date or poor quality

61
Q

What is a Meta-analysis?

A

Combining the findings of a number of studies with the same aim/hypothesis. The results are pooled and a joint conclusion is produced.

62
Q

Evaluate the use of a meta-analysis

A

+Larger, more varied sample
+Generalisable, increases validity

-Open to publication bias- may leave out unwanted negative data.

63
Q

What are the observation types?

A

-Naturalistic
-Controlled
-Covert
-Overt
-Participant
-Non-participant

64
Q

What is a naturalistic observation, + and -?

A

In a setting where it would normally take place.

+High external validity, done in a natural environment
-Extraneous variables

65
Q

What is a controlled observation, + and -?

A

Structured environment e.g lab setting

+More control over extraneous variables
-Lacks realism
-Unnatural behaviour

66
Q

What is an overt observation, + and -

A

Knowing they are being watched.

+Ethically acceptable
-Demand characteristics
-Unnatural behaviour.

67
Q

What is a covert observation, + and -

A

Unaware behaviour is being watched and recorded.

+Natural behaviour
-Ethical issues

68
Q

What is a participant observation, + and -?

A

Researcher who is observing is part of the group being observed.

+More insightful, increases validity
-Researcher may lose objectivity as they may identify too strongly with the participants.

69
Q

What is a non-participant observation, + and -?

A

Researcher observes from a distance, not part of the group.

+Researcher can be more objective and less likely to identify with Ps.
-May lose valuable insight

70
Q

What is observer bias?

A

An observers reports are by biased by what they want to see.

71
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A

Many researchers conducting the observational study to test its reliability.

72
Q

Explain the ‘Unstructured’ observational design, + and -?

A

Consists of continuous recording where the researcher writes everything they see during the observation.

+More richness and depth of detail
-More difficult to analyse and record

73
Q

Explain the ‘Structured’ observational design, + and -?

A

Researcher quantifies what they are observing, using predetermined list of behaviours and sampling methods (behavioural categories)

+Easier to analyse the data
-Not much depth and detail

74
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

The target behaviour observed is broken up into more precise components which are observable and measurable (operationalisation)

75
Q

What is ‘Time-sampling’ in structured observations, + and -?

A

Recording of behaviour within a time frame that is pre-established.

+Reduces number of observations, less time consuming
-Small amount of data, normally unrepresentative of observation.

76
Q

What is ‘Event-sampling’ in structured observations, + and -?

A

Counting the number of times a particular behaviour is carried out.

+Good for infrequent behaviour
-Important details of complex behaviour may be overlooked

77
Q

What is an observation?

A

Non-experimental technique, where the researcher watches and records behaviour without manipulating the IV

78
Q

What are the 3 measures of central tendency in descriptive statistics?

A

The averages:

Mean
Median
Mode

79
Q

What are the 2 measures of dispersion in descriptive statistics?

A

Spread and Variation:

Range
Standard deviation

80
Q

Evaluate the mean

A

+ Includes all values, so more representation

  • Easily distorted by extreme values
81
Q

Evaluate the median

A

+ Not effected by extreme scores

  • Ignores extreme values that may be important
82
Q

Evaluate the mode

A

+ Easy to calculate

  • Not representative of all the data
83
Q

Evaluate the range

A

+ Easy to calculate

  • Only takes into account the 2 most extreme values, so unrepresentative
84
Q

How do you calculate the mean, median, mode, and range?

A

Mean: Add up all values, divide by total number of values

Median: The middle value

Mode: The value that occurs the most

Range: The largest subtract the smallest value

85
Q

What is ‘Standard deviation’?

A

Tells us how far scores deviate from the mean.

Low SD: data points are clustered around the mean
Large SD: data points are widely spread around the mean

86
Q

How can you display quantitative data?

A

-Histogram
-Pie chart
-Line graph
-Bar chart
-Table
-Scatter graph

87
Q

In a bar chart there are 3 distributions, what are they?

A

Normal
Positive skewed
Negative skewed

88
Q

Explain the normal distribution on a bar chart

A

-Mean, median and mode are all at the midpoint of the curve
-Data is distributed symmetrically
-Scores dispersed consistently around the midpoint
-Express in standard deviation

89
Q

Explain a positive skewed distribution of a bar chart

A

-Curve no longer bell shaped
-Scores are dispersed consistently around lower scores and not the mean
-Mean, median and mode are no longer the same
-Extreme high scores are having an effect

90
Q

Explain negative skewed distribution in bar charts

A

-Curve not bell shaped
-Scores are dispersed consistently around higher scores not the mean
-Mean, median and more not the same
-Extreme low scores are having an effect

91
Q

Describe tables as a presentation of data

A

Used to summarise data so whoever is reading it can make sense of the numbers as they have been converted into descriptive statistics

92
Q

Describe scatter graphs as a presentation of data

A

-Measures relationship between 2 variables one on
-An ‘X’ where 2 variables meet
-Reveals correlation or pattern

93
Q

Describe graphs as presentation of data

A

-Summarise quantitive data
-Easily see patterns

94
Q

Describe bar charts as a presentation of data

A

-Summarise data that is already categorised
-Mean or frequency on y-axis

95
Q

Describe a histogram as a presentation of data

A

-Represents data on a continuous scale
-Columns touch
-Height shows frequency

96
Q

Describe the process of a sign test

A

-Do the same task twice but change something the 2nd time round
-Work out the sign difference better or worse (+ or -)
- S is the less frequent sign value
- N is the number of participants but ignore = values
- Significance level generally is p<0.05
- Use a table of critical values and is significant is the critical value is lower than S

Significant= accept experimental hypothesis
Not significant= accept null hypothesis

97
Q

What conditions do we need to use a sign test?

A

-Looking for a difference
-A repeated measure design
-Nominal data (categories)

98
Q

What is an estimate?

A

Used to reduce ball park figures, to create a broad idea of what the results would be.

99
Q

What are ‘order of magnitude calculations’?

A

Another kind of estimate using standard form and comparing exponents.

100
Q

What is peer review?

A

The assessment of work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality

101
Q

What are the aims of peer review?

A

-To validate quality and relevance of research: hypothesis, methodology, statistical tests, and conclusions

-To allocate research funding:
decide if funding should be awarded.

-To suggest amendments or improvements: suggest minor revisions, or conclude the work is inappropriate for publication and should be withdrawn.

102
Q

Evaluate the use of peer review

A

+ Anonymity: more honest review, but can use to criticise their competition

-Publication bias: prefer to publish positive results to increase credibility, a false impression

-Burying groundbreaking research: may not want to publish anything that opposes their own research.

103
Q

What are some implications of research?

A

Attachment: Bowlby- secure attachment with mothers, but other research suggests father attachment is just as important , so more mums at work increases the economy.

Mental Health: more awareness of disorders, more people off work with it, costs a lot, decreases the economy.

Psychology🧠 (8 decks)

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