Psychopathology Flashcards
What is Psychopathology?
The in-depth study of problems related to mental health
What is pathology?
The study of diseases
Why might it be difficult to define behaviour as abnormal?
-Subjective
-Cultural differences
-Context
-How do we measure it?
-Behaviour changes
-Societal views change
What is ‘Deviation from social norms’?
Evaluate
Social norms are set be a social group, a collective judgement on what is right e.g not wearing a bra
-Abuses human rights
-Creates social stigmas
+Real world application to schizotypal personality disorder- strange behaviour?
What is ‘Failure to Function Adequately’? Evaluate
Can’t cope in day to day life, distress leading to dysfunction.
+Threshold for help
+Individual experience
-Subjective
-Bereavement- does that mean abnormal?
Rosenhan and Seligman proposed signs of Failure to Function Adequately, what are they?
-Irrationality/dangerous
-Observer discomfort
-Unpredictability
-Severe personal distress
Outline the research on ‘Deviation from ideal mental health’
Jahoda: created a criteria for good mental health
-No symptoms of distress
-Rational and can perceive ourselves accurately and positively
-we self-actualise
-Can cope with stress
-Realistic view of the world
-Good self-esteem and lack guilt
-Independent of other people
-Successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure
Evaluate Jhaoda’s criteria for ‘Deviation from ideal mental health’
+ Useful checklist, can form diagnosis
- Cultural relativism, African voices are a good sign
- Too simplistic, other factors not considered
- Unachieveable
What is ‘statistical infrequency’?
The ‘Normal distribution curve shows the majority of people in the middle, as normal. You are abnormal id you are statistically different to everyone.
Relatively few people fall at either end, they are abnormal.
Evaluate ‘statistical infrequency’
+ Can see pattern and trends
- Labelling, socially sensitive?
- Useful in clinical practice
Define ‘Phobia’
Unreasonable, irrational, persistent fear of a particular situation or object.
60% have a fear
15% hace a phobia
What are the 3 sub-sections we can categorises characteristics of mental disorders?
Emotional- how you feel
Behavioural- how you act
Cognitive- how you think
What are 3 characteristics in the behavioural phobia sub-section?
Avoidance: makes an effort to prevent contact with phobia stimulus, effects daily life
Panic: crying, freezing, screaming
Endurance: alternative response to remain in the presence of fear e.g watching a spider crawl around your room.
What are the 3 characteristics in the emotional phobia sub-section?
Anxiety: unpleasant state of high arousal, prevents relaxing
Fear: immediate and extreme response to phobic stimulus
Unreasonable response: fear is disproportionate to the threat
What are the 3 characteristics in the cognitive phobia sub-section?
Irrational beliefs: thoughts just keep unfolding, one leads to another
Cognitive distortions: perception is inaccurate
Selective attention to phobia stimulus: its hard to look
What are the categories of phobias?
-Specific phobias
-Social anxiety
-Agoraphobia
Define ‘specific phobia’ and give examples
Sufferers are anxious in the presence of a particular stimulus:
-Animal
-Natural environment
-Blood
-Situational
-Other
This the most common type.
Define ‘social anxiety’ and give examples
Sufferers experience inappropriate anxiety in social situations:
-Thinking about it can cause anxiety
-Leads to avoidance
-Usually starts in adolescence
Define ‘agoraphobia’ and give examples
Sufferers are anxious in a situation they cannot easily leave being outside or in a public place(e.g crowds):
-Avoid situations
-Most start in early 20s without warning
-Avoid going out leading to deterioration in quality of life
This is the least common type.
Give a brief overview of the ‘two-process model’ as a behavioural explanation of phobias
(Hobart Mowrer)
Acquisition of phobias > Maintenance of phobias
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
(association) (reinforcement)
-Longer lasting phobias are maintained through operant conditioning
What were the reinforcements in the two-process model?
Negative: Avoidance
Positive consequence: reduce anxiety
Evaluate the two-process model
+Helped therapies develop
+Applicable
-Does not explain cognitive aspects of phobia
-Not all phobias follow a traumatic event
Explain systematic desensitisation
A step by step process aiming to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through classical conditioning:
- The anxiety hierarchy- created by client and therapist, a list of situations, least to most frightening
- Relaxation techniques- breathing exercises, mental imagery
- Exposure- exposed to phobic stimulus whilst in a relaxed state
Evaluate systematic desensitisation
+Client is involved with making hierarchy= ethical
+Based on classical conditioning principles
-Causes distress
-Relies on the person being able to relax
-Could have a reverse effect
What is ‘flooding’?
-Exposure therapy: flood the senses with fear
-Based on classical conditioning: new association is formed
-Biological element: you can only experience fear for so long before you get exhausted
-New positive association formed
Evaluate ‘Flooding’
+ Effective
+ Quicker, so more cost effective
- Can cause intense distress
- Less ethical
- May be ineffective, can bring back trauma
- Spontaneous recovery, not long-term
What are the DSM-5 categories of depression (4)? and explain them
Major depressive disorder: severe but often short term
Persistent depressive disorder: long-term or recurring
Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: childhood temper tantrums
Premenstural dysphoric disorder: disruption of mood prior or during mensturation.
What are the 3 characteristics of behavioural depression?
Disruption to sleep and eating
Activity levels- reduced energy
Aggression and self-harm- verbal or physical
What are the 3 characteristics of emotional depression?
Lowered mood- severe sadness
Anger
Lowered self-esteem
What are the 3 characteristics of cognitive depression?
Poor concentration
Absolutist thinking- see everything as bad
Dwelling on the negative- paying more attention to the negative things
What are the 2 cognitive approaches to explaining depression?
-Beck’s negative triad
-Ellis’ ABC model
Explain ‘Beck’s negative triad’
Faulty information processing:
Depressed people see the negative aspects of a situation.
Negative self-schema:
‘Package of info’ developed through experience- see themselves in a negative way
The negative triad:
Develops a dysfunctional view of themselves-
-of the world
-future
-self
Evaluate Beck’s negative triad
+ Real world application: therapy, CBT
+ Research support: cognitive vunerability predicted later depression
-Does not explain all symptoms
Explain ‘Ellis’ ABC model’
Good mental health= rational thinking
Anxiety and depression= Irrational thoughts, interfering with us feeling happy
(A) Activating event- triggers irrational beliefs
(B) Beliefs-
- ‘I-Can’t-Stand-It-itis’, dwelling on the negative
- ‘Utopianism’, life must always be fair
- ‘Musterbation’, a failure if you don’y succeed
(C) Consequences- the symptoms e.g depression
Evaluate Ellis’ ABC model
+ Real world application: Therapy, REBT
- Might not have an ‘activating event’
- Explains ‘reactive depression’ but not ‘endogenous depression’, as some depression does not have a cause
What is CBT?
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
-Aims to challenge irrational and dysfunctional thought processes
Outline ‘Beck’s Cognitive Therapy’
Focuses on negative schemas, challenges the thoughts and replaces with rational ones.
- Therapist helps to identify negative thoughts and keep a diary.
- Therapist challenges dysfunctional cognition, draws to positive incidents.
- Reality testing- homework
- Shows negative thoughts are irrational and unrealistic
- Behavioural techniques to encourage positive behaviour
- Small goals set to encourage sense of personal achievement
What does REBT stand for in Ellis’ REBT therapy?
Rational-emotive behavioural therapy
What is Ellis’ REBT therapy?
Add on to the ABC model:
A
B
C- emotional consequences
D- disputations to challenge irrational beliefs
E- effective new beliefs to replace old ones
-Based on problems are the result of faulty thinking
-Self defeating habits
-More confrontational
What are the 3 ‘disputing beliefs’ from Ellis’ REBT therapy?
Logical- self-defeating beliefs do not flow logically from the info available
Empirical- beliefs are not consistent with reality
Pragmatic- emphasises the lack of usefulness of self-defeating beliefs
Evaluate CBT
+ Effectiveness- studies show it works just as well as antidepressants
- High relapse rates- 53% after 1 year, not long-term
- Lack of suitability for diverse clients, involves complex thinking, people with disabilities may find hard
What is OCD?
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
What are ‘obsessions’?
Thoughts that are persistent, unwanted, and irrational
What are ‘compulsions’?
Tasks that people do to relieve their obsessions
Describe the OCD cycle
(imagine in a circle)
Obsessive thought → Anxiety →
Compulsive behaviour → temporary belief → back to obsessive thought
What are the 3 behavioural characteristics of OCD?
Avoidance- anxiety situations
Compulsions Repetitive- habitual
Compulsions anxiety reduction- task to reduce anxiety of obsessive thought
What are the 3 emotional characteristics of OCD?
Depression
Guilt and Disgust
Anxiety/Distress- due to unpleasant or frightening thoughts
What are the 3 cognitive characteristics of OCD?
Obsessive thoughts- recurring and unpleasant
Awareness of excessive anxiety- aware thoughts are not rational
Cognitive coping strategies- devise their own way to cope
Briefly describe synaptic transmission
-Neurotransmitter are released from the vesicles and diffuse across the synaptic cleft
-They bind to the receptor sites on the post synaptic neuron
-If any neurotransmitters are left in the cleft, they are taken back up into the presynaptic neuron (reuptake)
What are the 3 biological explanations of OCD?
-Genetic
-Neurotransmitters
-Neuroanatomy
Explain the ‘genetic’ biological explanation of OCD
Lewis found 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD (of people with OCD)
-Researchers have identified candidate genes which make you more likely to develop OCD such as SHT1 and the COMT gene
-OCD is polygenic- caused by different genes/neurotransmitters
-Aetiologically hetrogeneous- the same gene can cause different outcomes e.g OCD or no OCD
Explain the ‘neurotransmitters’ biological explanation of OCD
-Serotonin is a neurotransmitter with a role in regulating mood.
-Lower levels of serotonin are thought to cause obsessive thoughts and low mood due to it being removed too quickly in reuptake, before it has been able to transmit.
Explain the ‘neuroanatomy’ biological explanation of OCD
Faulty neuro-circuitry: areas of the brain are over active, causing anxiety and checking behaviours.
Left parahippocampul gyrus- associated with processing unpleasant emotions
The ‘worry circuit’ is over active:
Orbitofrontal cortex, basal ganglia system, caudete nucleus, and the thalamus.
Evaluate the biological explanation of OCD
Genetic:
+ There is research support: some people are more vulnerable to OCD due to genetics; 68% of identical twins share OCD, 31% non-identical
- Ignores environmental factors, some triggered by a traumatic event
Neural:
+ Supporting evidence: antidepressants work on serotonin are effective with OCD, so there must be a serotonin link
- The serotonin-OCD link may not be unique to OCD, people with OCD also experience depression
What are the biological treatments for OCD?
SSRIs
Alternatives: SNRIs and tricyclics
What are SSRIs and how do they work?
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor
-antidepressant
-increase serotonin levels in synapse so continues to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron
What is an SNRI and how does it work?
Serotonon-noradreneline Reuptake Inhibitors
-alternative to SSRIs
-different class of antidepressant
-increase serotonin and noradreneline levels
What id a tricyclic and how does it work?
-Alternative to SSRIs
-acts on various systems including the serotonin system where it increases levels
-an older type of antidepressant
-has a lot worse side effects
Evaluate the biological treatments for OCD
+Studies using a placebo show the drug is effective
+Drugs are cheaper
+Little effort required in taking them\
- Only effective short-term
- Relapse is common
- Side effects are severe
- Sufferers may benefit from talking to someone, GP or CBT
- Selective publication can lead to Drs making inappropriate treatment
What are the 4 definitions of abnormality?
-Deviation from social norms
-Failure to function adequately
-Statistical infrequency
-Deviation from ideal mental health
