Issues and Debates

Question 1

Define gender bias

Answer 1

The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on
stereotypes rather than real difference.

Question 2

What is alpha bias?

Answer 2

A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, suggesting
that there are real and enduring differences between the two sexes.

Typically to de-value females.

Question 3

What is androcentrism?

Answer 3

The consequence of beta bias and occurs when all behaviour is compared
according to a ‘male’ standard, often to the neglect or exclusion of women.

Question 4

What is beta bias?

Answer 4

A tendency to ignore or minimise differences between men and women. Such theories tend to ignore questions about the lives of women, or insights derived from
studies of men will apply equally well to women.

Question 5

What is universality?

Answer 5

The aim to develop theories that apply to all people, which may include
real differences.

Question 6

Define culture

Answer 6

The rules, customs, morals and ways of interacting that bind together members
of a society or some other collection of people.

Question 7

What is culture bias?

Answer 7

The tendency to judge all cultures and individuals in terms of your own
cultural assumptions. This distorts or biases your judgements.

Question 8

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 8

The view that behaviour, morals, standards and values cannot be
judged properly unless they are viewed in the context of the culture in which they
originate.

Question 9

Define determinism and what are its 3 types?

Answer 9

The belief that behaviour is controlled by external or internal factors
acting upon the individual and beyond their control.

Biological
Environmental
Psychic

Question 10

Define biological determinism

Answer 10

The view that behaviour is always caused by internal biological
forces beyond our control, such as the influence of genes.

Question 11

Define environmental determinism

Answer 11

The belief that behaviour is caused by previous experience
through classical and operant conditioning. i.e. phobias are a result of conditioning

Question 12

Define psychic determinism

Answer 12

Freud’s theory of personality suggests that adult behaviour is
determined by a mix of innate drives and early experience. These result in unconscious
conflicts over which we have no control.

Question 13

What is free will?

Answer 13

Each individual has the power to make choices about their behaviour, without
being determined by internal or external forces beyond their control

Question 14

Define hard determinism

Answer 14

The view that all behaviour can be predicted, according to the
action of internal and external forces beyond our control, and so there can be no free
will.

Question 15

Define soft determinism

Answer 15

A version of determinism that allows for some element of free will
and suggests that all events, including human behaviour, has a cause.

Question 16

What is moral responsibility?

Answer 16

The basis is that an individual is in charge of their own actions.

Question 17

What is the ‘environment’?

Answer 17

Everything that is outside our body, including people, events and the
physical world. Any influence on behaviour which is non-genetic.

Question 18

What is ‘nature’?

Answer 18

Any influence on behaviour which is genetic e.g. the action of genes,
neurochemistry, neurotransmitters and neurological structures.

Question 19

What is heredity?

Answer 19

The process by which traits are passed from parents to their offspring, usually
referring to genetic inheritance.

Question 20

What is holism?

Answer 20

With respect to a behaviour such as memory or mental disorder, perceiving the
whole experience rather than the individual feature and or the relations between them.

Question 21

What is reductionism?

Answer 21

An approach that breaks complex phenomena into more simple
components

Question 22

What is biological reductionism?

Answer 22

Reduces complex human behaviour to basic biological elements

Question 23

What environmental reductionism?

Answer 23

Explains behaviour through simple stimulus response mechanisms

e.g adult behaviour is a result of reinforcement from childhood.

Question 25

What is environmental reductionism?

Answer 25

Explains behaviour through simple stimulus response mechanisms such as adult behaviour is a result of reinforcement in childhood.

Question 26

What are levels of explanation and give some examples?

Answer 26

Explanations vary from those at a lower or fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher level

biological reductionism= basic level
psychological explanation= mid-level
sociological explanations= high level

Question 27

What is the idiographic approach?

Answer 27

A method of investigating behaviour which focuses on individuals and emphasises their uniqueness

Question 28

What is the nomothetic approach?

Answer 28

Seeks to formulate general laws of behaviour based on the study of groups and the use of statistical, quantitive techniques. It attempts to summarise the differences between people through generalisations

Question 29

What is socially sensitive research?

Answer 29

Any research that might have direct social consequences for the participants in the research or the group that they represent.

Question 30

Name some examples of socially sensitive research

Answer 30

Bowlby’s monotropic attachment theory: led to Britain not offering free childcare under the age of 5 due to the critical period leading to negative consequences.

Question 31

What is ethnocentrism?

Answer 31

Researchers consider their own culture or ethnic group to be superior and the norm, use it as a standard for evaluating other cultures.

Question 32

Evaluate the bias explanations

Answer 32

• Henrich found findings are argued to be universal but have culture-bias as conducted on WEIRD paticipants (Western, Educated, Industrialised, rich, democratic). 96% of subjects in studies were western nations.

+ Bias can be reduced through greater diversity, encouraging more female researchers to reduce andocentrism and to limit ethnocentrism.

+ Reflexive approach: researchers actively reflecting on their beliefs, values, and experiences to make them self aware- how this may effect their research.

Question 33

Evaluate free will and determinism

Answer 33

+ The free will perspective has face validity, people have the conscious experience of agency, feeling like they have the ability to choose their actions .

• Implications of accepting a fully deterministic view include potential access to education and employment: if violent behaviour can be predicted, may lead to interventions before its commited.
• EEG research showed a ‘readiness-potential’ that appeared to make a decision less than a second before awareness of conscious decision, conscious choices were an illusion.

Question 34

Evaluate the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 34

• Freud argued interactionist, children have biological drives in combination with unique life experiences during his stages
• Accepting behaviour as primarily influenced by nature or nurture has significant implications e.g. reduced sentences for criminals due to genes (they arent fully responsible).
• Twin studies show high concordance rates, therefore nature, yet not 100% so environmental factors must play a role.

Question 35

Evaluate holism and reductionism

Answer 35

+ Reductionism is scientific and enables objective testing to establish causation
+Reductionism supports empirical testing of drug therapies
-Over simplistic, doesn’t account for complex aspects

+Holism has resulted in client-centred therapy
-Might overlook significance of individual elements
-Unscientific, cannot isolate individual variables

Question 36

Evaluate the Nomothetic approach

Answer 36

+ Data is easy to replicate, gather, and analyse, enabling generalisation.

• General trends may not represent every individual in a group. fixed criteria

Question 37

Evaluate the idiographic approach

Answer 37

+ Rich and detailed info, more valid perspective on human behaviour.

• Not generalisable
• Time-consuming

Question 38

Evaluate ethical implications

Answer 38

• True implications are not known until after the research has been conducted and may only be clear years after publication.
• May put researchers off working in socially sensitive fields.

Question 39

Evaluate ethical implications: examples of socially sensitive research

Answer 39

• Bowlby: gender double standard, pressure on mother, minimises role of father
• Defining abnormality: using IQ as a criteria, people who just miss the cut off won’t get help.

Question 40

What is implications of research?

Answer 40

Consequences of constructing theories for participants and the groups they represent.

Question 41

What is Reflexivity?

Answer 41

Researchers should carefully consider their own personal biases, beliefs, and influential position.

Question 42

What are ethics committees?

Answer 42

Decide if the study should go ahead and use a cost-benefit analysis