Gender Flashcards
Define sex
Refers to an individuals biological status as either male or female, determined by sex chromosomes
Define Gender
An individuals psychosocial status as either masculine or feminine.
What is ‘gender dysphoria’?
When an individuals biological sex and gender identity don’t correspond
Name some role stereotypes for male and females
Male:
-Puts up shelves
-Commitment phobic
-breadwinner
Female:
-Poor driver
-Prepares food
-Remembers birthdays
What is a sex role stereotype?
A set of beliefs and preconcieved ideas about what is expected or appropriate for men and women in society
Define Androgyny
Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in ones personality.
What is the ‘Androgynous Hypothesis’?
Claims that ‘androgynous individuals were psychologically healthier than sex typed individuals such as masculine men and feminine women.
What is the two dimensional view of gender?
Constantinople:
Challenged the one dimensional view of gender by suggesting that a person can be high or low in masculinity and femininity simultaneously.
What is the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)?
-Measures androgyny.
-Test included a list of 60 items: 20 stereotypically masculine characteristics, 20 feminine, 20 neutral.
4 Categories:
Masculine- High masc, Low fem
Feminine- High fem, Low masc
Androgynous- High both
Undifferentiated- Low both
Outline Bem’s study
Aim: to construct an inventory to measure masculinity, femininity, and androgyny.
Method: 50 male, 50 female judges rated 200 traits for how desirable they were for men and women. 20 traits were chose for each.
Feminine e.g.: compassion, sympathy, warmth
Masculine e.g.: ambition, aggression, athletic
Conclusion: Men scored higher on masculine traits and vice versa. More people were androgynous, psychologically healthier.
Evaluate Bem’s sex Role Inventory
- Lacks temporal validity: the inventory was developed almost 50 years ago, behaviours and how acceptable they are have changed significantly.
- People may not have an insight into their degree of masc, fem, or androgyny. Self report questionnaire, need an understanding , and is quite subjective for each person.
- Is reliable and valid: inventory was piloted with 1000 students- results corresponded with P’s own beliefs of their gender identity, valid. Same results found in a follow-up study.
How many chromosomes does each person have?
46
23 pairs
23rd pair determines bio sex.
What chromosomes do males and females have?
Male= XY
Female= XX
Does the egg or sperm determine the baby’s sex, and why?
Sperm
Y chromosomes carry the ‘sex determining region Y’ which causes the testes to develop an XY embryo
What are androgens?
Male sex hormones
What is a hormone?
A biological substance that circulates in the blood but only effects the target organs
Chromosomes determine sex, but what determines development?
Hormones
Hormones can effect the body prenatally and in puberty, explain how
Prenatally: Hormones act on the brain development and development of reproductive organs
Puberty: hormones cause secondary sexual characteristics e.g pubic hair
What is testosterone’s role in sex development?
-Male hormone, present in women in small quantities
-During foetal development it is responsible for the development of sex organs
-Evolutionary terms, high levels is linked to aggression, males compete for fertile females.
What is Oestrogen’s role in sex development?
-Female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation cycles.
-Can cause hightened levels of emotionality and irribility during menstrual cycle.
-Leads to PMS- Premenstrual syndrome, or premenstrual tension, PMT
What is Oxytocin’s role in sex development?
-Typically women produce this in higher levels than men, after birth.
-Stimulates lactation, meaning breastfeeding is possible
-Reduces effect of cortisol (stress hormone), facilitates bonding
-Released greatly after birth
-Men produce less
What are the 3 hormones involved in sex development?
-Testosterone
-Oestrogen
-Oxytocin
Evaluate Hormones and chromosomes
+ Evidence supports role of sex hormones in gender development even in mature males:
Males with hypogonadism fail to produce normal levels of testosterone, in a study where they were given testosterone, improved sex function and muscle strength.
- Biological accounts ignore role of social factors in gender related behaviour: Geert Hofstede et al. claims gender roles are a consequence of social norms. Countries that place individual needs above the community have a more masculine approach, so these traits are more valued in their society.
- Reductionist: levels of chromosomes in biology, may be ignoring alternative explanations such as the psychodynamic or cognitive approaches. gender is more complex than just biology.
What are the 2 atypical chromosome patterns?
-Klinefelter’s syndrome
-Turner’s syndrome
Briefly outline what Klinefelter’s syndrome is
Males have an additional X chromosome, so XXY
-Affects 1 in 600 males
-10% of cases are identified prenatally
What are some physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome?
-Reduced body hair
-Breast development
-Long limbs
-Infertility
What are some psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome?
-Lack of interest in sexual activity
-Poorly developed language and speech skills
Briefly outline what Turner’s syndrome is
The absence of the X chromosome in females, so XO.
-Affects 1 in 5000 females
What are some physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome?
-Don’t develop ovaries or menstruate
-Broad chests, no breasts
-Low set ears
-Webbed neck
-Infertility
What are some psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome?
-Socially immature
-Higher than average reading ability
-Low spatial ability
What is the diagnosis and treatment for Klinefelter’s syndrome?
Diagnosis- Testosterone levels, sperm count
Treatment- Testosterone therapy
What is the diagnosis and treatment for Turner’s syndrome?
Diagnosis- Amniocentosis
Treatment- Paediatric endrocrinology for hormonal replacement, fertility specialists
Evaluate atypical chromosome patterns
+ Contribution to nature VS nurture debate: comparison of people with and without the syndrome shows behavioural and psychological differences, there is a clear biological basis.
+ Real world application for managing symptoms: research leads to more accurate diagnosis. 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome that had been treated at a young age had significant benefits.
- Sampling issue: To get a database for XXY and XO you need a large number , but only those that have it most severely are identified, so typical symptoms may be distorted.
- May be environmental influences: social immaturity may be due to people treating them in that way, so wrong to just assume its nature.
What is a gender schema?
A generalised representation of everything in relation to stereotypically ‘gender appropriate behaviour’
What is a schema?
A mental construct that develop by experience
What is the Gender Schema Theory?
Martin and Halverson:
-Cognitive developmental theory that believes children’s understandings of gender changes as they age.
-Believes that children actively structure their own learning rather than observing and imitating others.
What did Martin and Halverson believe?
When a child has established their gender identity at around 2-3 years old, they begin to actively search the environment for info that encourages the development of gender schema.
Outlines some examples of gender schema influences
-Friends at school
-Toys
Children are likely to disregard or misremember info that doesn’t fit their existing schemas.
What are in and out groups?
The idea that children have a much better understanding of the schemas that relate to their own gender as the ‘in-group’ and the opposite as the ‘out-group’
In-group identity serves to increase the childs level of self-esteem
its not until 8 yrs that they build more elaborate schemas for both genders
Evaluate the gender schema theory
+ Research Support: found that children under age 6 were more likely to remember photographs of stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour (e.g. woman washing the dishes) than gender inappropriate behaviours, (woman fixing car). Children tended to change the gender when asked to recall to make it more appropriate.
- Gender identity probably develops earlier than Martin and Halverson suggested: a longitudinal study of 82 children looked at the onset of gender identity. Data about language of children 9-21 months, looked at when they labelled themselves ‘boy’ or ‘girl’. Avg 19 months, as soon as they could communicate.
Briefly outline the key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
Importance of early childhood experiences:
-Childhood events have a great influence and shape our personality
-Events that happen in childhood stay in the unconscious
-Freud believed all children go through 5 stages of pychosexual development.
What are the 5 psychosexual stages?
Oral: 0-1 yrs
Anal: 2-3 yrs
Phallic: 3-6 yrs
Latency: 6-12 yrs
Genital: puberty - adult
When did Freud believe gender identity occurs?
5
What did Freud believe would happen if conflict was not resolved?
fixation
Briefly outline the Oedipus complex
-Sons passionate desire for mother
-Sees father as a rival
-Afraid father will find out and castrate him.
-Will identify with father
Conflict: lust for mother and fear of father
Briefly outline the Electra complex
-Daughters passionate desire for father
-Resent mother, thinks they have been castrated
-Penis envy
-Desire for baby instead
Conflict: lust for father and fear of losing mothers love.
What is Identification?
A desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because they posses certain desirable characteristics - develops a superego.
What happens after identification?
Internalisation:
An individual adopts the attitudes and/or behaviour of another, normally from same gender parent.
What is the term used to describe someone who does not identify with same sex parent?
Gender disturbed
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach to gender
+ Support for the role of the Oedipus complex in gender development: rated gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 with interviews, 75% of those that were gender disturbed had not had a bio father or father figure living with them.
- Lacks scientific credibility: subjective case studies, concepts are untestable as unconscious processes, questions validity.
- Freud had an inadequate account of womens gender development: he did not undertake the work on women and he admitted women are a ‘a mystery to him’ and idea of penis envy has been criticised as reflecting Victorian era where men had so much power.
How does gender schema determine behaviour?
Schema is likely to be formed on stereotypes such as boys play with toy cars, which provides a framework that directs experience as well as the childs understanding of itself.
What is Kohlberg’s theory?
Cognitive explanation:
Based on the idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age , but the link with age is not because of experience, comes as the brain mature, biologically maturing.
There are 3 stages
What are the 3 stages of Kohlberg’s theory?
1- Gender identity
2- Gender stability
3- Gender constancy
Outline stage 1 of Kohlberg’s theory: gender identity
-Age 2
-Child can identify themselves as boy or girl, and can label others as this
-Gender is not fixed e.g. boy wants to be a mum when older
Outline stage 2 of Kohlberg’s theory: gender stability
-Age 4
-Children realise they will always stay the same gender
-Confused by external changes in appearance e.g. men with long hair
-They believe people change gender if they engage in activities that are often associated with a different gender
Outline stage 3 of Kohlberg’s theory: gender constancy
-Age 6 or 7
-Child recognises their gender stays constant across time and situations, as well as other peoples genders.
-Seek out gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate- connects closely to social learning theory.
Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory
+ Evidence suggests gender stereotyping does emerge around age 6. When told about a boy playing with dolls, 4 year olds said it was fine to do that if he wanted to, but 6 year olds said it was weird.
- Supporting research relies on unsatisfactory methods to assess gender constancy: a lot rely upon children understanding gender stays the same even if appearance changes, yet the culture we are brought up in identifies males and females by appearance not genitals
What is the social learning theory in terms of gender?
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
Behaviour is learnt from learning from others
What is direct reinforcement?
Children are more likely to be reinforced (praised, encouraged) for demonstrating behaviour that is stereotypically gender-appropriate e.g. girls being rewarded for being gentle
Child is more likely to repeat behaviour that has been rewarded.
What is differential reinforcement?
The way in which boys get encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviours, how they learn their gender identity
What is indirect reinforcement?
(vicarious)
If the consequences of another person’s behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child e.g mum is called beautiful for makeup, child wants makeup
If consequences are unfavourable it is less likely to be imitated. e.g. boy sees another boy being teased for feminine behaviour, not likely to be copied.
What is Identification?
Refers to the process whereby a child attaches himself or herself to a person who is seen to be ‘like me’ or because a person is like someone ‘I want to be’
What is ‘modelling’?
The precise demonstration of behaviour that may be imitated by an observer e.g. washing dishes
What are the mediational processes?
Attention
Retention
Motor Reproduction
Motivation
Describe how the mediational processes fit into gender?
A- behaviour needs to be modelled by someone that wants to imitate
R- model behaviour is remembered
MR- try out behaviour need to believe you are capable of copying behaviour
M- needs to be a reason to repeat behaviour e.g. possible reward
Evaluate the social learning theory explanation of gender
- SLT theory doesn’t provide an explanation of how learning processes progress with age: suggests it can happen at any age from birth onwards, but seems illogical to suggest 2 yr olds learn in the same way as a 9 yr old.
+Key principles are supported by evidence: studied babies aged 4-6 months dressed half the time in boys clothing and the other half in girls. When interacting with adults, assumed boys would be more likely to be given a hammer shaped rattle, girls more likely to be given a doll.
+ Can explain cultural changes in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour: in society today, there is a less clear cut distinction between feminine and masculine behaviour and no change in biology since the 1950s- shift in social expectations and cultural norms
Define culture
The ideas, customs and social behaviours of a particular group of people or society
Explain nature and nurture in gender
-If gender roles are universal it suggests innate differences (nature)
-If gender roles are culturally specific then it suggests these roles are learned (nurture)
What is media?
Communication channels such as TV, film, and books
Outline cultural similarities of gender roles
Buss Carried out a survey in 37 countries where over 10,000 ppts had to rate importance of certain characteristics of a potential mate.
-Males rated good looks and youth as important because it was a good indicator of her health and ability to be a mother
-Chasity was important for faithfulness
-Women rated financial prospects, and dependability
Supports cultural similarities in gender roles
(nature)
Outline cultural differences in gender roles
Mead- studied cultural groups in Papa New Guinea:
-The ‘Arapesh’ were gentle and responsive (similar to femininity in industrialised society)
-The ‘Mundugumor’ were aggressive and hostile (similar to masculinity)
-The ‘Tchambuli’ women were dominant and organised village life, men were passive and considered to be ‘decorative’ (reversed sterotypes)
May not be a direct relationship between sex and gender, culturally determined (nurture)
Outline ‘self-efficacy’ (media and gender roles)
-Gives info to men and women to their likely success if they adopt these behaviour.
-Seeing other people perform gender appropriate behaviours increases a childs belief that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours in the future- Bandura referred to this as self-efficacy.
Study: Analysed attitudes of people in India who had watched a programme designed to challenge deep-rooted stereotypes.
A detective drama.
Girls who watched were more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home than non-viewers.
Outline ‘Rigid stereotypes’ (media and gender roles)
Media provide very clear gender stereotypes: (Bussey and bandura)
-Men are independent, ambitious, and ‘advice givers’
-Women are dependent, unambitious, and ‘advice-seekers’
Furnham + Farragher: men more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts, whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings.
Evaluate the culture and gender roles explanation
+Research support:
Supported by evidence, it is argued that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away form domestic spheres, lead to a breakdown in traditional stereotypes.
-Mead’s cross-cultural research has been criticised:
Accused of making generalisations based on a short-period study. A follow up study was conducted in the same place and found her findings were flawed as she had been misled be her participants, influenced by her preconceptions: example of observer bias and ethnocentrism
Evaluate the media and gender roles explanation
+Cultivation theory:
Theoretical basis, argues that the more time people spend living in the media world, the more likely they are to believe this reflects social reality. A study found a positive correlation between time spent watching ‘Jersey Shore’ and permissive attitudes towards casual sex.
-Passive recipients:
Gender roles and media may not have a casual relationship. Argued that even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages. Norms within family may be the bigger determinant on gender attitudes, media may just reinforce and confirm.
Define gender dysphoria
When a person experiences discomfort or distress when there is a mismatch between their sex assigned at birth and their gender identity.
Recognised in DSM-5
What 2 parts make up atypical gender development?
-Biological explanations
-Social explanations
Outline Brain sex theory (biological explanation)
Gender dysphoria has basis in brain structure: (Krujijver)
-The bed nucleus of the stria terminals (BST)
-The structure involved in emotional responsiveness ad in male sexual behaviour in rats. This area is larger than normal in men than women and has been found to be female sized in transgender females
-Suggests people with gender dysphoria have a BST which is the size of the gender they identify with
Outline the genetic factors (bio explanation)
Coolidge et al: Assessed 157 twin pairs, 96 MZ and 61 DZ for evidence of gender dysphoria. researchers found 62% of the variance accounted for biogenetic factors- strong heritable component.
Heylens et al: Compared 23 MZ twins, and 21 DZ, one in each pair was diagnosed with gender dysphoria. 39% of the MZ twins were concordant for gender dysphoria, compared to none of the DZ.
Evaluate the biological explanations (Atypical gender development)
-Contradictory evidence:
Central claims have been challenged, studied changes in transgenders brains using MRI scans taken during hormone treatment. Scans showed size of BST changed significantly. In the original study, brains were looked at in post-mortems after hormone treatment- differences in BST may be due to hormone therapy.
+Evidence suggests there may be other brain differences associated with gender dysphoria. Studies of white matter in the brain (a sexually dimorphic aspect) where there are regional differences in male and females. Brains were analysed in transgenders, before hormone therapy, and the white matter corresponded more like the gender they identify with not their sex.
Outline social constructionism (social explanation)
-Argues that gender does not reflect underlying bio differences between people and instead, concepts are invented by society.
-Gender dysmorphia arises from society forcing people to ether be a man or a woman.
-McLintock looked at the cases of people in the Sambia of New Guinea with a genetic condition. This causes some bio males to be categorised as female at birth as they have labia and a clitoris, at puberty these change to testes. This culture is now judged as having a pathological form of gender dysmorphia.
Outline the Psychoanalytic theory (social explanation)
Ovesey and Person:
emphasised relationships with family causes gender dysmorphia .
-Gender dysmorphia in males is caused by the boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety before their gender identity has been established
-The boy fantisises of a symbiotic fusion with mother, relieves anxiety, danger of separation is removed.
-Boy becomes the mother and adopts a womans identity .
-In interviews, gender disphoric males displayed overly close relationships with mother.
Evaluate the social explanation (Atypical gender development)
+ Social constructionism, not all cultures have 2 genders:
Many cultures have multiple genders (Samoa) which challenges traditional binary classifications. Increasing number classify as non-binary showing cultural understandings is only now beginning to catch up with the lived experience of many.
-Issues with the psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria: explanation does nor provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females as the theory only applies to transgender women. Research found bio males with gender dysphoria more likely associated with absence of father than fear of separation with mother.
