Research Methods Flashcards
What are the two theories involved in Research methods
Positivism and Interpretivism
Define Positivism
An approach to sociological research which advocates using similar methods to natural sciences, such as analysis of quantitative data.
What do postivists believe about human behaviour
That human behaviour is the product of ‘social laws’ or ‘social facts’ which arise out of the way societies are socially organised or structured.
What do Positivists believe
That sociology is a science and that sociological researchers should adopt both the logic and methods of the natural sciences.
They also believe that research should be carried out under controlled conditions, as are experiments in a lab.
What do sociologists do alternatively to using a lab for research
They aim to achieve control through the use of random sampling techniques and skilfully designed standardised and scientific measuring tools such as survey questionnaires and structured interview schedules.
What approach to positivist sociologists take to investigating social issues
A macro-approach
What do positive sociologists believe when coming to investigating social issues
- They believe society is more important than the individual
- They see human or social behaviour as the product of social forces or laws, so people have little or no influence
- They therefore view people as puppets of society who behave in predictable ways - groups of people follow particular trends in their behaviour
- They believe the job of a sociologist is to uncover these social forces and to document them
What sociologists prefer positivist research
Marxists and functionalists
Why do marxist and functionalists prefer positivist research
Because they are interested in how large-scale social processes, structures and institutions shape or influence social trends or patterns of human behaviour.
Define value freedom
The notion that sociologists should be objective when they carry out research and that their subjective beliefs, values and attitudes should not bias how they organise the research or interpret the data they collect
Define objectivity
The absence of bias or approaching research without any pre-conceived ideas
Define validity
Research findings give a true or authentic picture of what is being studied. It reflects reality
Define reliability
A research tool is reliable if another sociologist can use it and obtain the same results
Define representative
Relates to the sample of people who agree to take part in sociological research. If the sample is representative, it means they are a good cross-section of the wider population in which the sociologist is interested
Define quantitative data
Statistical or numerical data that can be presented in graphs and tables
What are positivists keen on achieving
Value freedom or objectivity. They want to make sure the sociologist should carry out research and interpret evidence with an open mid and set aside their own beliefs.
What is Interpretivism
An approach to sociology which advocates using methods which allow sociologists to understand the meanings and interpretation of those they study, typically using qualitative methods
What approach do interpretivists take
They take a micro rather than a macro approach because they believe the individual is more important than society
What do interpretivists observe
That human beings have consciousness which differentiates them from the subject matter of the natural sciences. People have free will and choose how to behave, the behaviour cannot be predicted
What do Interpretivists argue
That cause and effect relationships are impossible to establish in regard to human behaviour because human behaviour is generally unpredictable
What do Interpretivists argue about sociological research
That the research should focus on the shared meanings or interpretations that people use to make sense of their social world.
Define Verstehen
When a sociologist employs a method that helps them to see the world through the eyes of the group being researched
What is Subjectivity
Interpretivists argue that it is important to appreciate how the world looks from the point of view of those being studied
Interpretivists emphasise _______ rather than _______
Validity rather than Reliability
Define Reflexivity
Refers to the process of self-reflection by sociologists carrying out research. Many interpretivists researchers, discuss how their interaction with their research subjects may have influenced process. It is a process aimed at achieving objectivity and minimising bias
What do Interpretivists argue about the researchers
That the researcher should always be aware of how their presence influences the behaviour of the research subjects
What do Interpretivists believe about positivists research methods
That methods such as questionnaires and structured interviews are artificial and alien and consequently people may feel threatened by them and be tempted to give false or fake answers.
Define Generalisable
Sociologists can safely conclude that what was studied is probably true of the wider population to which the sample belongs
Define Rapport
Building up a relationship with those being studied
Define Ethnography
Researcher entering into the setting being studied
What is triangulation
Using a variety of means of undergoing the research
What are 3 factors effecting research
Pratical
Ethical
Theoretical
What are 4 practical factors affecting research
Cost
Time
Subject matter
Social characteristics
What are 5 Ethical factors affecting research
Informed consent
Rights to privacy
Avoidance of emotional/physical harm
Legality
Morals
Name the two types of random sampling
Systematic random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Describe systematic random sampling
Randomly choosing a number between 1 and 10 and then picking out every 10th number for that number (not always representative)
Describe stratified random sampling
Dividing the research population into a number of different sampling frames and then using systematic random sampling to select the group that will make up the sample
Name the 4 types of non-random sampling
Quota sampling
Purposive sampling
Opportunity sampling
Snowball sampling
Volunteer sampling
Describe quota sampling
Researcher has a certain number they need to fill and he/she looks for the right number of people until the quota is filled
Describe purposive sampling
Researcher chooses individuals or cases that fit the nature of the research
Describe opportunity sampling
Making most of situation or opportunities in which the research population is likely to be found
Describe snowball sampling
Used when researchers have difficult gaining access to particular groups. Involves interviewing and asking them for advice on who to ask next. Friends ask friends to join in etc.
Describe volunteer sampling
Sociologist advertise for volunteers
What is a Pilot study
Trial/practice study which allows the sociologist to check if the questions are relevant, understandable and appropriate, interviewers can be trained and can also spot bias
What are 2 factors affecting choice of research topic
Social problems
Sociological problems
Define social problems
Aspects of social life which cause misery and anxiety to individuals and society in general
What are choices of research topics dependent on
Interests and values of researcher
Current debates in academic world
Funding
Access to research subjects
Define hypothesis
An informed guess which will then be tested
What is Grounded theory
Some sociologists begin with a general aim and allow hypothesis to take shape and develop as the research data is collected
Define operationalisation
Hypothesis or research aim is broken down into concrete things that can be observed or measured
What are 2 positive factors of Longitudinal surveys
- Study the same group of people over a long period of time
- Clear image of changes and attitudes and behaviour over a number of years
What are 3 negative factors of Longitudinal surveys
- Respondents may drop out or researchers may lose track of them (undermines representativeness of original sample)
- Views of those who remain in the sample may be significantly different to those who drop out (undermines validity)
- Researcher team may get too friendly with members of group
What is Researcher imposition
Respondent changes what they say as the researcher is there
Describe Questionnaires
Main methods of gathering data in social surveys
A list of questions that are written down in advance and are handed to the chosen respondents for self completion.
What are open and closed questions
Open are open ended, like thoughts and feelings
Closed are like multiple choice
What are Semi-structured interviews
Questionnaires that employ a combination of mainly closed questions with occasional open questions
Self-report = asks respondents to tick what they have experienced
Attitudinal questionnaire = asking respondents on a scale of 1-5
Ideally, questions should be neutral and objective
Name 3 strengths of questionnaires
- Can be used for reaching larger and consequently more representative samples of people
- Less time consuming and are cheaper
- Usefull if they guarantee anonymity
Name 3 weaknesses of questionnaires
- Low response rates - especially is posted. Therefore, the validity is undermined
- Interpretivists argue they produce data which is low in validity - interpretation could be wrong or even lying
- Interpretivists argue that closed questions suffer from the imposition problem
Describe interviews
Can be carried out in a public space, telephone or online forums. The most successful interviews are carried out in private, neutral and unthreatening venues. Particularly useful when studying areas which are not accessible
However:
Can be expensive, Success depends on how well the interviewer has been trained e.g listening skills and body language
Describe structured interviews
Researcher reads out a list of closed questions from an interview schedule and ticking boxes or writing down answers
Interviewer plays a passive and robotic role
Responses normally converted to quantitative
Name 3 strengths of structured interviews
- Positivists are keen, they regard the method as scientific
- Use of close questions and fixed-choice tick boxes generate large amounts of quantitative data
- Can be conducted quite quickly - increasing possibility of a representative sample from which generalisations can be made
Name 3 weaknesses of structured interviews
- Artificial devices that are not a normal part of everyday reality - people could respond with suspicion, in an evasive way or could lie (Interviewer bias - undermining validity)
- Inflexible - interviewer cannot pursue any interesting leads
- Only snapshots taken at one moment in time
What are official and unofficial statistics
Official - numerical data collected by government
Unofficial - quantitative data collected by non-government sources
What are 3 strengths of official and unofficial statistics
- Easy and cheap to access - online
- Normally up-to-date and can clearly see patterns and trends
- Positivists see them as reliable - collected in a systematic way
Name 3 weaknesses of official and unofficial statistics
- May not represent a true picture
- Open to political abuse - stats can be manipulated for political advantage
- Statistics are socially constructed
Describe unstructured interviews
A guided conversation
Normally carried out in natural setting of respondent
Name 3 strengths of an unstructured interview
- Allow researcher to establish a qualitative interaction or relationship with respondent generating trust and rapport
- They are flexible
- Data is highly valid
Name 2 weaknesses of unstructured interviews
- Could be bias if interviewer picks and chooses material to match his/her opinion
- There are no pre-coded answers so the data is hard to analyse and quantify and turn into graphs or tables
Describe group interviews
Interviewer talks to a group or panel of respondents. Often used to interview children or to investigate the dynamics of a particular group
High in validity if truer image emerges when the group is interviewed together but it could be argued that there is a more dominant member of the group
Describe focus group interviews
Participants are encouraged to talk to each other and discuss an issue. There is minimal interference from the sociologist. The danger is that strong personalities can dominate
Describe Non-participant or direct observation
Involves the researcher sitting and observing an activity e.g patient/doctor interaction or a classroom. The observer is a detached and unobtrusive onlooker who plays no active role in the activity being observed
Less likely to be biased but could be argued that the behaviour is artificial (researcher imposition)
Describe participant observation
Researcher immerses into the lifestyle of the group.
Name 4 strengths of participant observation
- Researcher can see things through the eyes and actions of those in the group - verstehen
- High in validity - trustworthy
- Allows an understanding of changing attitudes and behaviour
- Can be supported by informal questions
Name 4 weaknesses of participant observation
- Observer or researcher effect
- Some observers can get too close to those being studied
- Covert can be dangerous for sociologist
- Dedication and acting ability is required
Define methodological pluralism
Combining of different research methods to build up a fuller picture of what is being studied
